Letters and Articles - Thoughts on Genes, Economics and Life

2012-02-10T14:27:00.000-08:00

I provided some genetics consultation for a novelthat has now been published – in at least two countries, no less! I have been acknowledged in the book for my contributions. It will be available on Amazon.comon Valentine’s Day. Go check it out!

The Clarity "Challenge"

2012-01-26T20:41:00.000-08:00

The Challenge sponsored by the Children's Hospital in Boston: "Competition participants will get de-identified genome sequences (from Life Technologies and Complete Genomics, which are sponsors of the challenge) and clinical summaries covering three children and their families. The children all have a rare disease with a suspected genetic component. The teams will aim to get from that [sequencing] data to the root cause of the disease, and to present their findings in a clinically meaningful report."

What is interesting is the amount of the award - it is only 25K. It suggests that the challenge isn't much of one.

Six Billion to One

2012-01-23T10:00:00.000-08:00

Here is great depiction of the enormous task that is interpreting the human genome.

Roche to Buy Illumina?

2012-01-22T20:52:00.000-08:00

Roche makes a hostile play for Illumina.

Word is they are holding out for $60/share. Either they pony up the money or get out of gene sequencing technology altogether as their 454 technology, although good, is now dead thanks to Life's Ion Proton.

My bet is it will happen.

I'll Drink to That

2012-01-15T08:07:00.000-08:00

Researchers to sequence Chardonnay genome

Same Day Genomes

2012-01-14T08:10:00.000-08:00

Looks like the battle of over the delivery of both the same day genome and the $1000 price tag has been won with Life's introduction of the Ion Proton.

A Genomic Swiss Army Knife

2012-01-12T14:29:00.000-08:00

Along with the ever-so-useful toothpick, a Swiss Army knife can also accommodate a genome (or 340 without annotation). Not exactly a game-changer in the genetics world, but an indicator of how easy it is becoming to accommodate a boat-load of information. But note the price: ~$2000 for 1TB.

Cost of the Human Genome

2012-01-08T11:02:00.000-08:00

A decent graph (by Personalis, a start up by Standford researchers) depicting the decline in the cost of the human genome and the the number of genomes that have been sequencing. Note that it does not include Gnome's prices.

Lesson for the New Year: Don't Declare Your Goals.

2011-12-27T09:22:00.001-08:00

Contrary to popular belief, the first step in achieving your goals is not telling anyone about them.

How to start a movement

2011-12-27T07:47:00.000-08:00

A short lesson on the importance of being an early follower.

A Passing Introduction of the Mendelianome

2011-12-14T13:34:00.000-08:00

Because you can never have too many -omes!

Cracking the Bioelectric Code

2011-12-14T09:20:00.000-08:00

“The hypothesis is that for every structure in the body there is a specific membrane voltage range that drives organogenesis,” said Pai. “By using a specific membrane voltage, we were able to generate normal eyes in regions that were never thought to be able to form eyes. This suggests that cells from anywhere in the body can be driven to form an eye.”

Roll Over DNA

2011-12-08T13:22:00.000-08:00

Discover: Worms (specifically c. elegans) pass on a trait for 100 generation without DNA! Also see this study.

Ambry Now Offering "CLIA Exome" Sequencing

2011-12-08T08:34:00.000-08:00

Yet another company getting on board.

Here is their recommended testing strategy:

Google and Your Memory

2011-12-08T07:17:00.000-08:00

List of the Top 1000 Websites

2011-12-01T14:29:00.000-08:00

Google gives us the top 1000 websites in the world. MayoClinic.com (#690) and Ancestry.com (#739) were the only two genetic testing related sites listed.

BCM launches Whole Exome Sequencing Clinical Testing

2011-11-21T13:09:00.000-08:00

Baylor College of Medicine is now offering clinical whole exome sequencing analysis and interpretation for about $9000 with a TAT of 90 days.

The test will be conducted at Baylor's Whole Genome Laboratory - a name that clearly underlines their ultimate goal.

Blogging Your Genotype

2011-11-15T11:02:00.000-08:00

Blogger Razib Khan publishes his 23andMe genotype data and puts it into the public domain in an effort to quell fears associated with exposing personal genomic information. The fear is seemingly irrational given that we now have GINA along with many state laws prohibiting genetic discrimination including California's new law.

Razib has noted that the test cost ~$300 in total and took about 4 weeks to get a result. Here is a list essentially everything he was tested for.

Bar-Coding Life

2011-11-14T09:26:00.000-08:00

You can already identify animals with a DNA bar-code; now you can do it with plants too.

Trial and Error Rules!

2011-11-12T10:15:00.000-08:00

A simple and brilliant perceptive by Tim Harford.

Fishy Business

2011-11-11T12:22:00.000-08:00

The Boston Globe reports on fish fraud.

Specious Species

2011-11-11T12:14:00.000-08:00

Fight against Seafood Fraud Enltists DNA Testing: Scientific American

Venter Speaks!

2011-11-06T13:32:00.000-08:00

A great presentation by Venter at TEDMED 2010.

Hello and Goodbye to NGS Panel Tests

2011-11-05T13:19:00.000-07:00

ØGeneDx adds CLIA Exome Sequencing to test menu.

UK's NHS Report on NGS

2011-11-04T13:15:00.000-07:00

Comprehensive recommendations for prompt and effective adoption of NGS - in the UK's National Health System's clinics.

New York's Genome Center

2011-11-03T10:24:00.000-07:00

A little behind the curve, but a welcome event nonetheless:

Direct-to-Genomics Testing

2011-11-02T11:17:00.000-07:00

It appears to be coming to a clinic near you.

Who has the majority of abortions in the US?

2011-11-01T09:59:00.000-07:00

An article by Lauren Sandler of Slate.com shatters the teen, slut myth:

According to the Guttmacher Institute (based on 2008 data) "...61% of women who terminate a pregnancy in this country already have at least one child." And 32% who had two or more children.
"... a whopping 72%...looking to terminate a pregnancy were already mothers, up at least 10 percent from the years before the economy crashed."
"...most women making this choice are contending with some combination of low income, unemployment, and a lack of health insurance, or are struggling to raise kids on their own."

The Bottom of the Backlog

2009-03-29T20:32:00.000-07:00

(First published in The Journal of the Association of Genetic Technologists 2009;35(2):50-51)

Forensic DNA laboratories are overburdened and overextended to such a degree that the case backlog numbers in the hundreds of thousands. The last official government estimate of the state, local and national DNA backlog was in 2003. At that time the attorney general estimated the number of backlogged cases to be between 150,000 and 500,000. What is not clearly recognized or commonly known is that that much of backlogged samples are derived from rape victims. Human Rights Watch (a nonprofit, nongovernmental human rights organization) has estimated the number of untested rape cases to be nearly 400,000, nation wide and that “…evidence from homicides and other violent nonsexual crimes [are] regularly processed, while rape kits remain untested.”

Case in point: An official Los Angeles city audit issued late last year revealed that at least 7,000 rape kits remain “untouched” by the police department’s crime lab. Shockingly, more than 200 rape kits had been sitting so long, that the 10-year statute of limitations for bringing prosecutions had expired.

According to Human Rights Watch, Los Angeles City and County collectively comprise a total of at least 13,000 rape kits, sitting in storage – waiting to be analyzed.

Although this example is particularly egregious, history has proven that such situations are not confined to California. Until a few years ago, North Carolina reportedly suffered persistent DNA testing backlogs, including 6,000 untested rape kits that delayed arrests and prosecutions across the state.

The federal government does not require forensic laboratories to routinely count or categorize their DNA backlogs. Furthermore, most states are not required to notify victims if their evidence has not been processed. Consequently, many victims incorrectly assume that silence from the police means that their kit did not yield helpful information.

To its credit, Congress has made a number of significant legislative efforts to address the problem. The Debbie Smith DNA Backlog Grant Program (H.R.5057), first introduced in 2004 and reauthorized late last year as the Debbie Smith Reauthorization Act of 2008, allows appropriations for DNA analysis, the sexual assault forensic exam program, and includes forensic training and education for law enforcement, corrections personnel and court officers. Unfortunately, there are fundamental problems with this program that suggest that the DNA backlog may persist and that rape cases may once again find their way to the bottom, or remain there, as the case may be.

Since 2004, nearly half a billion dollars of federal funding have been appropriated under H.R. 5057 to process the thousands of unprocessed DNA evidence kits - including rape kits - across the country. Yet, in reports to the Justice Department from 2005 to 2007, half the states that received the grants did not spend all of the funds granted (for reasons that are not entirely clear). This situation has actually resulted in grant funding cuts to such states, and have been extended to intuitions that were involved (such as the Los Angles Police Department) – regardless of the need.

Although H.R. 5057 was originally designed to eliminate the rape kit backlog, states have used the grant for testing backlogged DNA evidence from any crime. States are not required to specify how many rape kits they process, and most reports say only how much DNA evidence was tested with the funding, not the types of cases to which the DNA was connected or whether they were even prioritizing backlogged rape kits at all.

Because Federal funding by the program is available only as a grant (spanning a period of usually 12 months), labs can only guarantee additional DNA analysts’ jobs for that allotted time – a factor that has reportedly stifled recruiting efforts.

Perhaps one of the most significant contributing factors is an ever-increasing influx of DNA samples that are over burdening and overextending forensic labs. As the technology has become more popular, police and prosecutors are relying on it in ever-increasing numbers. Compounding this problem is an attempt by the Federal, some state and local governments to expand the use of their DNA databases by mandating DNA testing of all felons and certain arrestees – who have not been convicted of a crime. In addition, there are attempts to also include familial testing data so that the DNA profile of a potential suspect can be deduced. Such expansions in collecting DNA profiles may contribute to the backlog by diverting money that could be used to pay for backlog testing.
Furthermore, new technologies are enabling DNA analysis of incredibly small or degraded samples – adding still more to the pending cases to be analyzed.

The apparent failure of previous congressional efforts to reduce the case backlog has led questions of how well the Justice Department supervises its backlog reduction program. Interestingly, according to government records, the Justice Department outsourced oversight of the program itself to a nonprofit company in Florida. Records indicate that an estimated amount $55 million of the department’s funds allocated for the DNA backlog problem is unaccounted for.
Hopefully, it is these contributing factors, among others, which are themselves due to legislative shortcomings and a lack of oversight, that are the reasons for the DNA backlog and not “…a failure to treat rape as seriously as other violent crimes” as suggested in a New York Times editorial. For the neglect and a lack of justice for those whose evidence comprise the DNA backlog, which are overwhelmingly rape victims, would be tantamount to criminal.

The Debbie Smith Reauthorization Act of 2008 mandates that The National Academy of Sciences, in consultation with forensic science practitioners from States and units of local government, conduct a study to determine the resources and other requirements necessary to eliminate the backlog and to prevent it from reoccurring. This new measure will likely shed some additional light on how best to eliminate the DNA backlog and the pending rape cases that account for much of it. Clearly, this provision should have been included in the original Act, which was passed nearly five ago. Given that sex offenders generally strike more than once, I wonder how many rapes could be prevented if there was no DNA backlog at all.

Sources:
Human Rights Watch, US: Soaring Rates of Rape and Violence Against Women, http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2008/12/18/us-soaring-rates-rape-and-violence-against-women, 2008

Katsanis, S., Reauthorization Of DNA Backlog Grant Program Could Expand Forensic DNA Collection, Medical News Today, http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/118232.php, 2008.

Kirkpatrick, C.D., Charlotte's DNA backlog slows effort to solve crimes, The Charlotte Observer, http://www.charlotteobserver.com/local/story/356752.html, 2008.

Moore, S., DNA backlog stalling many criminal cases, Herald Tribune, http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/10/26/america/DNAweb.php?page=2, 2008.

Protess, B. and Rubin J., As DNA test backlogs soar, U.S. cuts funding, Los Angles Times, http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2008/12/18/us-soaring-rates-rape-and-violence-against-women, 2008.

The New York Times Editorial, A DNA Backlog, The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/10/opinion/10mon2.html, 2008.

Tofte, S., A Test of Justice for Rape Victims, WashingtonPost.com, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/21/AR2008072102359.html?sub=AR, 2008.

Willing, R., DNA backlog piles up for FBI, USAToday.com,
http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-09-03-dnabacklog_N.htm, 2007.

The Library of Congress – Thomas, Debbie Smith Reauthorization Act of 2008,
http://www.thomas.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/T?&report=hr757&dbname=110&. 2008.

The Library of Congress - Thomas, Justice for All Act of 2004, http://www.thomas.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/?&sid=cp108313am&refer=&r_n=hr711.108&db_id=108&item=&sel=TOC_31811&, 2004.

Kissing Cousins

2009-01-19T21:23:00.000-08:00

(First published in The Journal of the Association of Genetic Technologists 2009;35(2):13)

Consanguinity is a state of being descended from a common ancestor. The term is often used as an indication of increased genetic risk to the offspring of such couples. However, the risk associated with, at least one type of consanguineous coupling - cousin couples - has been overstated. While the assumption that that offspring of cousins do have an increased risk of some deleterious genetic conditions is true, the actual risk has been found to be relatively low. Consequently, US laws governing marriage appear to be inconsistent with scientific evidence, the general North American sentiment towards cousin couples notwithstanding.

Cousins can be defined as remote ancestors by two or more steps and in a different line. The closer the biological relationship between partners, the greater the probability that their offspring will inherit identical copies of one or more detrimental recessive genes. According to Bennet et al. (2002), in the general population, the risk that a child will be born with a congenital birth defect is 3 percent to 4%. First cousins add another 1.7 to 2.8% to the background rate. Therefore, despite the doubling of the background rate, at worst, ~93% of the time there are no negative genetic health consequences.

As a result of these findings, Bennet et al. (a panel of genetic experts convened by the National Society of Genetic Counselors) concluded that no additional preconception screening was recommended for cousin couples.

In other words, the risk is similar if not lower than that of other relatively high risk groups such as mothers of advanced maternal age and even fathers of advanced paternal age among many others. For example, people with Huntington’s Disease or other dominant disorders have at least a 50% risk of transmitting the underlying genes to offspring. No laws exist to prevent genetic unions between Huntington’s carriers from taking place. Yet cousin couples (in the broadest sense of the term) appear to have been discriminated against within the United States – as reflected by marriage laws.

Thirty one states laws either bar the practice of cousin marriage (or marriage between a niece or nephew and their uncle or aunt) or allow it only if the couple has genetic counseling, is beyond reproductive age or if a partner is sterile. Of the 31 states, 6 states ban marriage between first cousins once removed (i.e. marrying the son or daughter of your first cousin). In addition, some of the laws do not distinguish biological kin from married kin.

Cousin marriage – and marriage between a niece or nephew and their uncle or aunt is legal in Canada – and has been at least since 1990. No countries in Western Europe have such prohibitions.

In contrast, in parts of the Middle East, Africa and Asia, marriages between first cousins are preferable, or less commonly between an uncle and niece or between double first cousins (when siblings from one family marry siblings from another family).

The reasons cousin coupling is addressed in the court of law, at least within America, are not entirely clear. Although anthropologist Martin Ottenheimer argues the prejudice is based on now-discredited 19th century research on birth defects among children born to first cousins, religious interpretation may have also played a role. In addition, common misunderstandings--such as overstating the role of consanguinity in the prevalence of Hemophilia in the royal families of Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries may serve as support for state laws. In fact, the mode of inheritance of this X linked recessive condition is independent on whether or not the union is consanguineous.

Arguably, if the risk to the offspring is significantly high, discrimination against couples may be warranted. However, eugenics quickly becomes the central theme when such an argument is posed. As William Saletan fo Slate.com suggested, “…why use a crude standard such as kinship? Why not test everybody for bad genes, ban marriage between carriers, and let cousins without bad genes marry each other?” He adds”…why not start with fertile women over 40? And what about ethnicity?” referring to ethnically predisposed diseases such as Tay Sachs and Sickle Cell Anemia.

Clearly, there is a stigma associated with cousin coupling within North American culture. The union is often referred to as incestuous. Interestingly, Bennet et al. made a point of stating that the term "incest" should not be applied to cousins but only to sexual relations between siblings or between parents and children.

Apart from discriminating state marriage laws and general societal views, perhaps the most disturbing result of the cousin coupling prejudice is that there are reports of counseling by physicians having urged unnecessary procedures such as tubal ligations and abortions.

Endogamy refers to a society in which mating partners are preferentially chosen from within the group, due to geographical, cultural, or religious factors among others. In addition to potential endogamous benefits to consanguineous couples, interestingly, Helgason et al. (2008), recently concluded that third and fourth cousin couples have the greatest number of offspring – the reasons for which are not yet understood.

There is a great need to disseminate information regarding consanguineous couples to medical professionals and the general public. Laws banning cousins from marrying are largely based on outdated assumptions with regard to risks to offspring of cousin couples. And it is the prejudice that allow such unjust laws to endure.

For a list of famous cousin couples see: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coupled_cousins

Sources:

Bennett, et al., Genetic Counseling and Screening of Consanguineous Couples and Their Offspring: Recommendations of the National Society of Genetic Counselors, Journal of Genetic Counseling, Vol. 11, No. 2, April 2002.

CBC News, Repeal Laws Banning Cousins from Marrying: Geneticists, CBC, December 22, 2008.

Grady, D., Few Risks Seen to the Children of 1st Cousins, The New York Times, April 4, 2002.

Grossman, J.L., FindLaw Forum: A Genetic Report Should Cause a Rethinking of Incest Laws, CNN.com, April 10, 2002.

Helgason, A., Snæbjörn P. , Guðbjartsson D.F., Kristjánsson, þ., Stefánsson K., An Association Between the Kinship and Fertility of Human Couples, Science, , Vol. 319. no. 5864, pp. 813 – 816, February 8, 2008.

Keim, B., Cousin Mariage OK by Science, Wired.com, http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/12/cous
inmarriage.html, 2008.

Saletan, William, The Love That Dare Not Speak Its Surname: What’s wrong with marrying your cousin?, Slate.com, http://www.slate.com/id/2064227, 2002.

Direct To Consumer Genetic Testing: A Brief Overview

2008-09-23T07:35:00.000-07:00

(First published in The Journal of the Association of Genetic Technologists 2008;35(2):195-196).

Direct to consumer (DTC) genetic testing is the practice of marketing and selling genetic testing services to private individuals, without any requirement for approval or guidance by a health care professional. Appealing as this development may be to some consumers, there is much controversy and concern regarding the testing claims, and resulting information from the genetic tests – not to mention the tests themselves.

DTC Genetic Testing Companies

There are at least two-dozen DTC genetic testing providers in the United States alone. These companies vary with regard to price, testing services and service packages. Some companies specialize in specific areas of genetics; Sciona, for example, specializes in nutrigenetic tests whereas Sorenson Genomics specializes in identity testing.

DTC Genetic Tests

Over 1400 DTC genetic tests are currently available to the general public; with both health- and non-health related evaluations offered. Some tests are designed to detect relatively common genetic diseases (such as Cystic Fibrosis, Thrombosis and Fragile X) whereas other tests claim to evaluate health risks (such as addiction, depression and cancer). Genome scans designed to identify potential predispositions are also offered.

Non-health related genetic evaluations can include testing for various bodily traits and specific forensics and genealogy studies. In one odd example, 23andMe provides results for the genetic determination of the subject’s ear wax type (wet or dry).

These tests can be ordered by the consumer via a home kit, which can involve the use of buccal swabs or mouthwash as the submitting specimen. The kits can even be found in supermarkets and drugstores. Identigene, for example, is a paternity test kit that is now available at many pharmacies across the country.

Going State-by-State and Beyond

According to The Genetics and Public Policy Center (GPPC),

“…whether health care provider authorization is required to obtain a genetic test is the province of state law. Some states explicitly authorize laboratories to accept samples from and deliver test results for specific tests (such as pregnancy tests) directly to patients without authorization from a health care provider. Other states categorically prohibit all DTC testing.”

As some states are silent on the issue, individual testing facilities are left to their own judgment as to whether to offer DTC testing. At the time of writing, 25 states and the District of Columbia permit DTC laboratory testing without restriction, whereas 13 categorically prohibit it. DTC testing for specified categories is permitted in 12 states, although the permission does not address genetic tests specifically (GPPC, 2008).

According to the American Society of Human Genetics, various countries have issued reports cautioning against its use of DTC genetic testing and several European countries have banned or are considering banning it. These efforts may prove useless, however, as any official ban of testing is easily circumvented with the use of direct mail.

Not All Labs are Created Equal

DTC genetic testing facilities are typically not certified by CLIA (or CAP)—a professional and legal standard that mandates federal regulatory compliance and or professional peer oversight in the effort to ensure quality laboratory testing. The Department of Health and Human Services, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services work together to regulate the operation of clinical laboratories.

Not All the Tests or Claims Are Validated

While the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has the power to regulate genetics tests as medical devices, it regulates only those sold as “test kits” and used by laboratories to perform testing. The FDA considers test kits to be medical devices and requires that they undergo pre-market review before they can be made commercially available.

Since the vast majority of genetic tests are developed by the laboratory, neither the tests, nor the claims made about them, are subject to FDA oversight. Consequently, many genetic tests currently offered have not been clinically validated. Furthermore, while most other home-use medical tests undergo FDA review to provide some assurance of their safety and effectiveness, no at-home genetic tests have been reviewed by the FDA.

As a result, DTC genetic testing companies can make claims that are unproven, ambiguous, false and/or misleading. In fact, according to the FDA and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), with regard to DTC genetic tests,
“…some of these tests lack scientific validity, and others provide medical results that are meaningful only in the context of a full medical evaluation (FTC, 2006).”

Furthermore, although some DTC genetic test results may provide a basis for choosing a particular diet, dietary supplement, lifestyle change, or medication, the FDA and CDC state that they know of no valid scientific studies showing that genetic tests can be used safely or effectively to recommend nutritional choices.

The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) polices advertising and marketing; thereby protecting consumers against unfair or deceptive trade practices such as false or misleading claims. However, according to the GPPC, the FTC has not been vigorous in preventing companies from making misleading claims.

In an apparent conclusion to the issue, both the FDA and FTC have recommended that consumers be skeptical regarding DTC genetic tests and their accompanying claims.

Considering the Ethics

According to a federal panel that convened in January 2008, the practice of bypassing doctors and marketing directly to consumers has raised a number of “significant ethical concerns” (Pear, 2008).

Consumers with little knowledge of genetics may have difficulty distinguishing between tests that are widely used and accepted by medical professionals and those whose validity is unproven in the scientific literature.

In addition, a company’s marketing literature and testing results may underemphasize the uncertainty of genetic testing results, or exaggerate the risk, thereby possibly increasing consumer anxiety and promoting unnecessary testing.

However, as Aaron Rowe of Wired magazine suggested, a healthcare professionals’ participation with genetic testing may not always serve to protect the patient.

“…regulators have a false notion that physicians are more familiar with genetics than educated consumers. Even clinicians who recently graduated from medical school have little training in personalized medicine or genetic counseling.”

Clearly, the Internet has made available a bewildering amount of information to virtually anyone on earth with access to a computer and a connection. Given this ongoing development, to question the intelligence of the general public may be, dare I say it, elitist.

Furthermore, as succinctly stated by Dr. Stefansson, the chief executive of Decode Genetics it would be wrongheaded to prevent people from obtaining information about themselves of their own free will and that [genetic professionals] “… cannot deprive people of the right of genetic self determination (Wade, 2008).”

It is also important to consider that increased competition, in part due to the advent of DTC genetic testing services, may force genetic testing prices down via commoditization (the transformation of the market for a unique, branded product into a market based on undifferentiated products through increased competition (Wikipedia, 2007)). If implemented appropriately, regulation can allow commoditization to occur readily. Consequently, with greater regulatory oversight of DTC genetic testing companies, consumers should benefit by the declining cost of genetic testing services – while ensuring quality testing.

Closing in on the Difference

Interestingly, some DTC genetic testing companies choose not to offer their customers anything more specific than suggestions towards disease predispositions and other equally vague advice precisely because of the lack of regulation. In fact, some providers have publicly requested specific federal guideless in an effort to expand their interpretations of tests results and the information they include in both marketing material and patient reports. Dr. Gill, the Chief Science officer of Sciona, for example, has publicly stated “…we would welcome more federal regulation” (Wade, 2008).

Some DTC genetic testing providers have also begun to adopt professional guidelines, acquire professional accreditation and or official recognition (along with the regulatory controls) equal to that of some clinical laboratories. For example, Sorenson Genomics is now AABB accredited and 23andMe utilizes a CLIA “high complexity” certified laboratory. DNA Direct claims to meet and exceed the recommendations listed by both the National Society of Genetic Counselors and the American College of Medical Genetics as guidelines for “direct-to-consumer” genetic testing companies and services.

Conclusion

Upon researching and writing this article, it seems to me that many of the technical concerns with regard to DTC genetic testing services may also apply to certified clinical laboratories. Certainly “home brew” kits are often utilized in certified clinical laboratories without direct regulatory oversight. And as new technologies—such as ever larger microarrays—become increasingly utilized, interpretation of tests becomes more complex. Even definitive claims of “testing negative” for a disorder or predisposition can be difficult to support, as exemplified by the accompanying statements within a report. The difference, however, is accountability. A clinical laboratory is subject to oversight and review and can be held accountable via the loss of specific accreditation, certification and or licensure. Without regulation, DTC companies have only their reputation and the threat of civil legal action as a measure of enforcing accountability.

It appears rather obvious that we need to regulate DTC genetic testing in an effort to address the ethical and technical concerns, yet provide greater accessibility, autonomy, empowerment and lower prices to the consumer—a regulatory prescription that will itself be very complex, but undeniably promising to the general public. Until then, it may be that professional groups will provide the necessary guidance to both general public and the DTC genetic testing service providers.

Sources:
Pear, R., Growth of Genetic Tests Concerns Federal Panel, New York Times, January 18, 2008.

The American Journal of Human Genetics, ASHG Statement* on Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing in the United States, Volume 81, Issue 3, 635-637, 1 September 2007.

Federal Trade Commission, At-Home Genetic Tests: A Healthy Dose of Skepticism May Be the Best Prescription, http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/edu/pubs/consumer/health/hea02.shtm, 2006.

The Genetic Public Policy Center (GPPC),
http://www.dnapolicy.org/policy.issue.php?action=detail&issuebrief_id=32, 2008.

Rowe, A., Wired.com, http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/06/top-10-reasons.html, 2008.

Wade, N., Company Offers Genome Assessments, The New York Times, November 16, 2007.

Wikipedia, Commodification, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodification, 2007.

(For a compromise list of DTC genetic testing providers and corresponding test menus see: www.dnapolicy.org/resources/DTCcompanieslist.pdf)

Patently-Non-Patentable

2008-07-08T08:44:00.000-07:00

(First published in The Journal of The Association of Genetic Technologists 2008;34(2):97-98).

Malcolm Simons had an idea. It was to patent the concept of analyzing all non-coding regions of DNA (promoters, SNPs, splice sites notwithstanding) for the purpose of making inferences about genes—any genes—of any species. According to Simons, his discovery was made during research he was doing between 1987 and 1988. He filed a patent application and assigned it to his employer in 1992. In 1997, the patent, known as “Intron sequence analysis method for detection of adjacent and remote locus alleles as haplotypes”, or US Patent 5,612,179, was granted.

It should be immediately apparent that US Patent 5,612,179 was—and is—invalid. Yet Genetic Technologies Limited (GTG), the patent holder, is pursuing the enforcement of this incredibly broad patent, in numerous countries throughout the world—with individual licensing fees that extend into the millions—with great success. This patent in particular, with its broad interpretation, will result in increased costs of (past and future) research and development, adversely affecting the availability of the developed product and services to the detriment of consumers and patients.

Patent Analysis Gone Wild

As discussed in a previous column, Patenting Policies As Applied To Genetics, it is not permissible to patent an abstract idea, nor any natural or physical phenomena.

Moreover, the idea in question was not "novel", one of the four criteria used to judge a patent application. In fact, the utility of non-coding regions was suggested as early as 1975 by Lin and Riggs where they stated "We propose that ‘junk’ DNA in [eukaryotes] functions to maintain total DNA at an optimum concentration" (Lin and Riggs, 1975).

It also seems that the idea was not "non-obvious"; yet another criterion used in judging the viability of a patent application. Certainly if Line and Riggs, independently—and publicly—surmised, in a top leading international scientific journal (Cell), that the analysis of non-coding regions may be of interest, then it is reasonable to assume that others in the field may have also suggested a similar idea, perhaps thereafter (within the twelve plus years prior to Simons research), or possibly even before the Lin et al.'s publication.

In fact, Francis Collins—the former director of the Human Genome Project—cites research dating back to 1978, by W.Y. Kahn, that disputes the novelty, and validity, of this particular patent. And of course, there is the DNA fingerprinting technology introduced by Alec Jeffries in the early eighties who, in fact, did discover a utility of non-coding sequences years prior to Simons patented realization. Extensive research may yield even more evidence proving that Simons’ patent was “non-obvious”.

Given that Simons’ idea did not satisfy the rules for patent approval, one can only conclude that the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) simply made a mistake in granting US Patent 5,612,179.

Standards Change

Clearly, the patent application would have been rejected under current rules, which have become more specific to the science of genetics. Under the new rules, one must be able to 1) Specify how the product functions in nature 2) Identify the genetic sequence 3) Specify the sequence's product 4) Enable one skilled in the field to use the sequence for its stated purpose. Note that Simons did not—could not—have provided this information to the USPTO.

Going Retro

Retroactive analysis of a patent would set precedence for a slew of other patents to be reevaluated and the entire process would require Congressional approval. This conundrum may be a factor in preventing attempts to reverse the mistake of granting this particularly ridiculous US patent.

Win or Lose, It Matters Not

To the credit of GTG's business acumen, the company brilliantly secured insurance that covers the costs of protecting the patent if it is legally challenged—a measure that seems to imply internal concern over the validity of the patent. The insurance, itself, may provide an incentive for the company to enforce the patent at essentially any cost.

Going to Collections

The patent has been approved in over 24 countries—almost solely due to the way in which international patent process is structured. This achievement enables GTG to collect licensing fees from a number of companies and institutions worldwide. Indeed, GTG appears to be wildly successful in collecting money from the "patent infringers".

Major biotech companies such as Applera, Monsanto, Myriad, Genzyme, LabCorp, Sequenom and Quest and even some governmental agencies—have already entered licensing agreements—thereby indirectly providing greater merit to the legality of the patent and directly supporting a pro patent paradigm. As a measure of how lucrative these licensing fees are, according to GTG, the company has generated over AU$53 million on this patent alone. Interestingly, Myriad, the company notorious for trying to monopolize breast cancer susceptibility testing of the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2, paid a million dollars in a non-exclusive (cross-licensing) deal for GTG’s questionable patent. Genzyme paid over 7.5 million, in cash and intellectual property, in addition to an annual payment of 1 million (until 2015) to secure a license for US Patent 5,612,179.

A patent is valid for approximately 20 years. Consequently, because of the age of the patent, their enforcement efforts (likened to blackmail by the CSO of Sequenom) are now focusing on smaller organizations, publicly funded institutions and non-profits, including universities and hospitals.

Conclusion

Given a description that is sufficiently abstract, I am nearly certain that any chromosome, whose sequence is publicly known, could be patented. Who knows: perhaps it has already been patented and the patent holder is just beginning the noble process of excessive fee collection. Or, better yet, perhaps this very idea could escape the qualifying rules of the patent process and be granted a US patent. You read it here first.

Sources

Coovadia, A., Patenting Policies As Applied To Genetics, J Assoc Genet Technol. 2007;33(1):17.

Four Corners, Interview with Dr. Francis Collins, http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2003/20030811_patent/int_collins.htm, 2003.

Four Corners, Interview with Dr Malcolm Simons, http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2003/20030811_patent/int_simons.htm, 2003.

Four Corners, Interview with Mervyn Jacobson,
http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2003/20030811_patent/int_jacobson.htm, 2003.

Genetic Technologies Limited, http://www.gtg.com.au/index.asp?menuid=060.070.190.020, 2008.

Lin S, Riggs AD, The general affinity of lac repressor for E. coli DNA: implications for gene regulation in procaryotes and eukaryotes, Cell. 1975 Feb;4(2):107-11.

P. Scott, Casey Luskin and the junk DNA conspiracy,
http://all-too-common-dissent.blogspot.com/2007/07/creationist-lawyer-and-discovery.html, July 25, 2007.

Simons, M., Intron sequence analysis method for detection of adjacent and remote locus alleles as haplotypes, Google Patents,
http://www.google.com/patents?id=u2wjAAAAEBAJ&dq=us+5,612,179, 1997.

Message on the Bottle

2008-03-30T12:28:00.000-07:00

(First published in The Journal of Association of Genetic Technologists 2008;34(2):61).

Pharmacogenomics is the study of variable drug response in individual patients. Personalized medicine refers to the use of an individual’s genetic information to tailor strategies for the detection, treatment, and prevention of disease (Collins, 2005). Until recently, these two complimentary studies have been akin to genetic therapy – promising areas of development with little practical achievement. With the relatively recent FDA approval of the re-labeling of a commonly prescribed drug, with clinically significant genotypic information, the promise of personalized medicine and the science of pharmoacogenomics is being officially realized and publicly recognized.

Note the Genotype

Warfarin (the generic version of Coumadin) is an anticoagulant and is one of the most widely prescribed drugs in the world, used for the prevention and treatment of thromboembolic disorders (cardiovascular disorders associated with thrombus and embolus formation in blood vessels). In the US, the drug is prescribed to over two million people annually.
Incorrect dosing of warfarin carries a high risk of either severe bleeding or failure to prevent thromboembolisms. In fact, according to the FDA, hemorrhage during warfarin therapy is a leading cause of death in Western countries and related adverse events account for 1 in 10 hospital admissions.

Two variable genes (CYP2C9 and VKORC1) play a key role in the metabolism and regulation of warfarin. Clinical studies have shown that patients with CYP2C9 and VKORC1 genetic variations require lower initial and maintenance dose to stay within the target INR (a measurement of the body’s ability to clot).

Healthcare professionals are not required to conduct CYP2C9 and VKORC1 testing before initiating warfarin therapy. However, the new label information may aid in prescribing the correct warfarin dose, and encourage increased attention to the drug response of the patients with these genetic variations.

Although dosing algorithms that take into account the genetic, clinical and demographic factors are available for this drug, the FDA has neither offered nor endorsed any dosing algorithm that factors in genotypic information.

Although warfarin is the first drug to have a recommendation for pharmacogenomic testing by the FDA, it is not the only drug to be labeled with genotypic information. In fact, the FDA has approved such labeling for all of the following: 6-Mercaptopurine (an immunomodulatory drug), Azathioprine (an immunosuppressant), Irinotecan (a topoisomerase 1 inhibitor), and Atomoxetine (a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor).

Other candidates that may be approved for re-labeling with genetic information in the near future include cancer treatment related medications such as Methotrexate, Iressa, Tarceva and Gleevec, all which have been shown to have some degree of clinically significant correlation between the drug responses and genotypes.

Note the Regulator

The FDA is an agency within the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) that, in accordance with the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C ), is responsible for protecting the public health by assuring the safety, efficacy, and security of a variety of items including human medication.

According to the FDA, personalized medicine is a component of the personalized health care initiative of the HHS. To meet this initiative, the FDA is charged with “1) re-labeling previously approved drugs with new genetic information when appropriate, 2) including genetic information in the labels of newly approved drugs when genetic tests can differentiate patients in advance with regard to predicting benefit, risk or doses, and 3) encouraging the pharmaceutical industry to include the study of genetics in new drug development” (FDA, 2007).

“The FDA is also responsible for advancing the public health by helping to speed innovations that make medicines and foods more effective, safer, and more affordable; and helping the public get the accurate, science-based information they need to use medicines and foods to improve their health”(FDA, 2007).

Conclusion

The amount of new information generated by the genetic correlation studies is potentially enormous and requires genetic education for, and medical case coordination between, health professionals of nearly all types and the general public. It will also require additional continuing education for many health care professionals, including clinical geneticists, technologists and directors.

In much the same way that the science of nutrition and general biochemistry has, to some extent, been co-opted by the food processing industry, one can speculate that genetic variation information will also be utilized for marketing purposes. Food product labels may one day include genotypic information regarding potential consumers, along with the other numerous health claims often made. In addition, other products such as skins creams, herbs, and vitamins, etc., may also exploit genotypic relationships or correlations that will almost surely be discovered. Only time, and the FDA, will tell. Until then, the message from the FDA is clear: the age of personalized medicine and pharmacogenomics is here.

Sources

Collins, Francis S., Personalized medicine: A new approach to staying well, The Boston Globe, July 17, 2005.

Coleman, Howard, Genelex Corporation, http://www.healthanddna.com/WarfarinGenetics/WarfarinGenetics_viewlet_swf.html, 2006.

FDA, FDA's Mission Statement, http://www.fda.gov/opacom/morechoices/mission.html, 2008.

FDA, FDA News, http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2007/NEW01684.html, August 16, 2007.
FDA, Questions and Answers on New Labeling for Warfarin (marketed as Coumadin), http://www.fda.gov/cder/drug/infopage/warfarin/qa.htm, August 16, 2007.
Genelex Corporation, Warfarin (Coumadin) and DNA, http://www.healthanddna.com/warfarin.html.

NPR.org, Day to Day, Genetic Testing Can Help with Drug Dosages October 24, 2007.

And the Helix May Set You Free

2008-01-30T14:04:00.000-08:00

(First published in The Journal of The Association of Genetic Technologists 2008;34(1):11-12).

The first application of DNA forensics evidence was carried out by Dr. Alec Jefferies in 1983, in a British court case which sought to identify the relationship between an emigrant and her son. Since then, genotyping technology (also known as DNA fingerprinting and genetic profiling) has been developed and applied to identifying individuals for a wide variety of purposes including exonerating convicts.

Faulty forensic evidence is a common cause of wrongful convictions. And once convicted, access to the forensic evidence remains a clear barrier to possible exoneration. In fact, it is DNA exoneration that is driving state legislators to address some of the apparent legislative flaws that govern forensic evidence testing in the US.

Evidential Errors

As with clinical specimens, the identification, collection, testing, storage, handling and reporting of forensic evidence usually involves a number of people and it can be compromised at any stage of the process.The risk of compromising a forensic sample begins at the crime scene, where evidence can be mishandled, planted or destroyed. The evidence is then sent to a forensic lab, where it can be contaminated, poorly tested, unnecessarily exhausted or mislabeled. In any event, the final report can be misrepresented or incorrectly interpreted.

Conflicts of interest can exist between the crime lab and the prosecution and or police department. In fact, forensic misconduct by scientists, experts and prosecutors has lead to wrongful convictions in many states.
The former director of the West Virginia state crime lab, Fred Zain, testified for the prosecution in dozens of cases in twelve states over his career. DNA exonerations and new evidence in other cases have shown that Zain falsified his results, committed perjury, with regard to case results and his credentials, and willfully omitted evidence from numerous reports involving DNA and or serology.

An investigation of the Houston crime lab, completed in 2007, showed evidence of drylabbing - reporting results when no test was actually performed. In addition, it was discovered that there was 274 cases in which biological matter was detected but never tested. Moreover, final report test results were misreported in at least 43 of 135 DNA cases - 6 in which new tests have already discredited analysts' DNA work.

Pamela Fish, was a serologist in the Chicago Police Lab before she transferred to the Illinois State Police Lab and was later promoted to chief of the biochemistry section, which handled DNA testing. Fish has been accused in multiple lawsuits of presenting false or misleading testimony that helped to convict nine men, including three that have since been exonerated by DNA and four more defendants that have been cast in doubt.

Joyce Gilchrist, an Oklahoma City Police Department Forensic Chemist, falsely testified to matched hair and semen samples from a crime scene to a suspect. She also appears to have withheld evidence from the defense and failed to perform tests that could have cleared defendants in a number of cases. Hundreds of cases in which she has testified in have now come under review.

Of course, malfeasance and negligence (criminal or otherwise) are not confined to DNA (and serology testing). In the Houston Crime Lab investigation, errors have also been exposed in the lab divisions that test firearms and controlled substances. In fact, there is proof that the crime lab analysts skewed a variety of types of reports to fit police theories in a number of crime cases.

Missing Evidence

Only a fraction of criminal cases involve biological evidence that can be subjected to DNA testing. Even when such evidence exists at that time, it can be lost, depleted or destroyed after a conviction, making retesting impossible.

These poor forensic testing standards have contributed to the American Bar Association calling for a national moratorium on the death penalty in part due to the “…spotty collection and preservation of DNA evidence…”.

Access to Evidence

Once convicted, access to the forensic evidence remains a clear barrier to exoneration. Some states - namely Alabama, Alaska, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Oklahoma, South Carolina, South Dakota and Wyoming - deny any type of access to DNA evidence that may have not been available at the time of their convictions making possible proof of innocence much more difficult.

Evidential Legislative Flaws

Forensic laboratories are not subject to the same scrutiny and standards as clinical labs. Although, there are professional societies and an accreditation body for crime labs, namely, The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors / Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB), membership to such organizations are essentially voluntary.

Indeed, error and misconduct can occur regardless of standardization. Case in point, the Illinois Police Crime Lab had been consistently accredited by the ASCLD/LAB suggesting that perhaps, even more rigorous standards should be applied forensic testing facilities.

Fortunately, crime labs in many states are beginning to undergo greater scrutiny. Vermont and Maryland passed laws just over a year ago to improve crime lab oversight. In particular, Maryland recently passed a law that will hold its crime labs to the same standards as clinical laboratories, a much more rigorous requirement. At this time of writing, other similar legislative changes to crime lab oversight are pending in 21 states.

Conclusion

The first DNA exoneration took place in 1989. To date there have been 210 post-conviction DNA exonerations in the United States – of which 147 exonerations were since 2000. The average sentence served by a DNA exoneree is 12 years.

Consider the fact that of the 210 people exonerated through DNA evidence, 15 served time on death row. One can only conclude, with out any fundamental ethical concerns, that a state, or perhaps a federal moratorium on the death penalty should be implemented until legislation requires forensic crime labs (and forensic crime scene experts) to have rigorous mandatory standards, that are at least as high as those of clinical laboratories, so that we are not all, in the least, albeit indirectly, guilty of murdering of the innocent.

Of course, hindsight is 20/20, and when considering the possible advent of new technologies, not to mention the unearthing of legislative flaws such as those presented herein, perhaps the death penalty should be put to rest itself (pun intended). It would, in fact, be inline with all other Western countries.

Since 1973, over 125 people have been released from death row with evidence of their innocence. Certainly, the growing number of exonerations (via DNA or otherwise) provides evidence that such a moratorium or ban in the US is necessary.

DNA exonerations are yet another example of how the genetic technology we regulatory employ is forcing legislative changes that have the potential to be profound - and life saving.

Sources

Death Penalty Information Center,http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?did=412&scid=6, 2008.

Khanna, R. and McVicker, S., Police lab tailored tests to theories, report saysHouston Chronicle, May 12, 2006.

Khanna, R. and McVicker, S., `Troubling' cases surface in report on HPD crime lab, Houston Chronicle, June 17, 2007.

Luscombe, Belinda, When The Evidence Lies, Time.com, http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,109568,00.html, May 13, 2001.

Moore, S., Exoneration Using DNA Brings Change in Legal System, New York Times, Oct. 1, 2007.

Sherman, M. and The Associated Press, The Denver Post.com, Lawyers say death-penalty systems undermine fairness, http://www.denverpost.com/nationworld/ci_7307794 10/28/2007.

The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors (ASCLD), http://www.ascld.org/, 2008

The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors / Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB,), http://www.ascld-lab.org/, 2008.

The Innocence Project, http://www.innocenceproject.org/, 2008.
The President’s DNA Initiative, http://www.dna.gov/case_studies/convicted_exonerated/alejandro, 2008.

Westervelt Eric, Joyce Gilchrist, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1122856, May 12 2001.

Symmetry, Information, Selection and Legislation: A Case for Universal Health Care

2008-01-01T21:28:00.000-08:00

(First published in The Journal of The Assocation of Genetic Technologists 2007;33(4):191-92).

A number of articles published in newspapers, journals and magazines have predicted the inevitable demise of the US private health insurance industry, directly due to advancements in genetic technology.

With the upcoming DVD release of Michael Moore’s critically acclaimed film, "Sicko" and a forthcoming US federal election, where the issue of health care reform is beginning to take center stage, it seems appropriate to review this relatively common prediction of the direr implications of advancements in genetic testing with regard to the viability of the US private health insurance system.

The Insurance Model

The fundamental concept of insurance is that it balances risk across a large, random sample of
individuals. By pooling risk in this manner, health insurance companies rely on the model that the healthy will subsidize the sick. Therefore, by insuring enough people, “…on average, the payouts to the unexpectedly unhealthy policyholders should be [significantly – in a for profit model] offset by unnecessary premiums paid by the unexpectedly healthy policyholders” (The Economist, 2000).

Symmetry and Selection

According to economic theory, market failure (an inefficient market) can occur when asymmetrical information is available. Asymmetric information is exclusive information that confers an economic advantage to one party over another. Information asymmetry can lead to adverse selection (also known as anti-selection or negative selection), whereby the holder of the exclusive information takes advantage of it.

Adverse Selection

In practice, adverse selection refers to the tendency for only those who will benefit from insurance to buy it. As explained by Hall and Rich (2000) “…when this situation arises, it can be expected that high-risk individuals will purchase a disproportionate amount of insurance.” In this case, premiums set according to the average risk will not be sufficient to cover the claims that eventually arise. Consequently, health premium rates increase across the board, due to the inability of the insurer to identify [or discriminate towards] those that are at a higher risk. Raising health premiums “…compounds the problem by making insurance less attractive to lower risk individuals… If they [insurance companies] drop coverage, average rates go even higher. In the most extreme cases, adverse selection can cause rates to spiral so high that no one wants to purchase the insurance and so the market for that product entirely collapses (Hall and Rich. 2000)”.

Of course, it may be possible that “the market reaches an equilibrium in which insurers can earn a reasonable return even with higher risks in the pool, yet the price remains sufficiently attractive to keep medium or lower risks in the pool”(Hall and Rich, 2000). There is, however, at least one example in which an ever increasing, almost infinite amount of asymmetrical information is becoming readily available that can cause persistent market disruptions.

Genetic Discrimination

Information derived from genetic tests is not inherently (pardon the pun) asymmetric. Genetic test results can certainly be predictive and thus, reduce the uncertainty (or randomness) regarding predictions of an individual’s health, thereby requiring health insurers to pool a larger population; but the information is not necessarily exclusive. It is the laws that govern genetic discrimination at both the state and federal levels that can deem the information to be asymmetric, with regard to health insurance. As presented in the last JAGT issue, through a patchwork of current laws, personal genetic information can essentially be considered protected from insurance companies; thereby preventing a company from denying insurance, raising premiums, or exhibiting any other type of genetics-based discrimination. In addition, a comprehensive federal anti genetic discrimination bill has been approved and is pending final passage in the Senate, potentially sealing the deal by closing possible legal loopholes and specifying the particulars.

As genetic research and technology advance, a greater amount of asymmetric information will become available, enabling more precise predictions of future health outcomes for individuals and amplifying the problem of adverse selection.

The Model Solution

The only truly effective way to reduce adverse selection “…is to make the purchase of insurance compulsory, so that those for whom insurance priced for average risk is unattractive are not able to opt out” (The Economist.com, 2007).

And there you have it; Universal Health Care. Baring unforeseen political and legal maneuvers by health insurance companies, it appears that advancements in genetic testing will provide, as stated by Dr. Ashish Sureka (2000), an “impetus towards universal health care” within the US.

Conclusion

Universal health care is, by definition, health care granted to all citizens or residents of a country or territory. Many people, in fact, believe it is an essential human right. Indeed, it is proclaimed in the United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which applies to all member countries. Even the CEOs of major US companies such as Wall Mart and Safeway, considered to be notorious for their poor worker benefit programs, have aligned with labor groups to advocate for a universal healthcare system, albeit for economic reasons. There is considerable debate, however, over how to fund such a project. And therein lies the problem, by no means an insurmountable one.

The US currently spends 15.5% of GDP on private health care (more than any other nation) and yet is ranked poorly overall by international health standards by such organizations as the World Health Organization. More importantly, the fact that at least 45 million US citizens are uninsured (9 million of them children) suggests that market failure--defined as an inefficient allocation of scarce resources--appears to have occurred long ago.
Perhaps an improved system that is “uniquely American” as described by the American’s Health Insurance Plans, the industry’s main lobby group, can be implemented by incorporating both the much vaunted free market system and public funding and thereby satisfying all parities involved. Australia, for one, provides an example of how such as system can work; or perhaps the somewhat novel approach of non-profit or not for profit system as that found in Germany. Certainly, there are many types of systems to consider. Indeed, apart from the US, every industrial country, and many underdeveloped ones, offer some form of universal healthcare.

Among the literature I reviewed, one article dating back to 1996 suggested that it may be a great while before the behemoth of an admittedly troubled industry, at least with regard to ever increasing costs, is transformed into something new. In the meantime, regardless of the likely development of a universal health care system in the US, be aware that the genetic technology we regularly devise and employ is transforming our society in ways that relatively few are aware of. I, for one, welcome this change.

Sources:

Berry RM., The Human Genome Project and the end of insurance, Univ Fla J Law Public Policy. 1996 Spring;7(2):205-56.

Department of Health and Human Services Center for Medicare and Medicaid Expenditures, National Health Expenditures Projections 2006-2016, http://www.cms.hhs.gov/NationalHealthExpendData/downloads/proj2006.pdf, 2006.

Cecchetti, S., A future of public healthcare for all, Financial Times, http://my.brandeis.edu/news/item?news_item_id=10163, July 2, 2007.
Hall MA, Rich SS, Laws restricting health insurers' use of genetic information: impact on genetic discrimination, Am J Hum Genet. 2000 January; 66(1): 293–307.

NPR, Fresh Air from WHYY, Diagnosing U.S. Health Care — and 'Sicko,' Too , An Interview with Jonathan Oberlander, July 9, 2007.

Sureka, A., Improved genetic testing: a new impetus toward universal coverage, Princet J Bioeth. 2000 Spring;3(1):20-34.

The Economist, Do Not Ask or Do Not Answer?, Aug 25, 2007.

The Economist.com, Testing Times,
http://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty/bhagwan.chowdhry/genetic2.htm, Oct. 21, 2000.

The Economist.com,
http://www.economist.com/research/Economics/alphabetic.cfm?letter=A,
2007.

United Nations, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html, 1948.

United Nations, The 2006 United Nations Human Development Report, http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006, 2006.

Diversified Concerns: A Letter to My Employer

2007-09-28T11:48:00.001-07:00

To Whom It May Concern:

I am concerned with the upcoming change in our 403b plan sponsor.

Could you please tell me, will Diversified offer a standard investment retirement savings account (as AIG Valic currently does) or will I be forced to participate in buying funds only? Assuming not, I would like to request that this option is added to the Diversified's plan.

As New York Times Economist David Leonhardt has reported, when adjusting for inflation in evaluating the period between March 2000-June 2007, the stock market has “…only marginally outperformed cash sitting in a bureau drawer” (http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/18/business/18leonhardt.html?n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fPeople%2fL%2fLeonhardt%2c%20David). Consequnely, a 403b plan that does not provide a standard investment retirement savings account option (as AIG Valic currently does) would be sub optimal, to say the least.

Also, as a note of criticism, I find it ironic that although a key selection decision point for the change to Diversified is that it is suppose to provide greater transparency, the discussion and selection of a plan sponsor, and indeed the need for a change at all, was not made transparent to “general” All Children's employees. In fact, to my knowledge the discussion and final decision was exclusive to upper administration members only. I, as well as a number of my colleagues, find this fact disconcerting.

Furthermore, Diversified appears to be anything but. They appear to offer only their own mutual funds as opposed to AIG, for example, which offer a number of well-recognized funds, which are managed by different companies.

Could you please address these concerns for me?

Thank you for your time and attention to this matter.

Sincerely,

Adam Coovadia
Molecular Genetics
x8985

The New Laws of Genetics

2007-08-01T21:00:00.000-07:00

(First published in The Journal of The Association of Genetic Technologists 2007;33(3):110-11).

Although the topic of genetics is commonly discussed in the media, apart from the topic of stem cell research, legislative issues pertaining to genetics are often unreported or simply overlooked. There are currently three U.S. congressional bills of considerable scientific consequence that, if passed will a great impact on science and healthcare and, in particular, on the science and practice of genetics within the United States.

The Genomic Research and Accessibility Act

The Genomic Research and Accessibility Act (H.R.977.IH) was introduced in the House of Representatives February 9th, 2007 by Mr. Becerra (D-Ca) and Mr. Weldon (R-Fla). The purpose of this bill is “…to prohibit the patenting of human genetic material”.

As most of us are aware, the patenting of genes is a controversial topic. A debate exists regarding the promotion of private research and development over the public interest. However, unlike conventional patented items, human genes, gene fragments, DNA sequences and corresponding proteins exist in essentially each and every one of us. This fact complicates the issue of who has the exclusive legal rights to govern and regulate the testing and analysis of human genetic material.

The key point of the Genomic Research and Accessibility Act is that it would include the banning of patents pertaining to “…nucleotide sequence, or its functions or correlations, or the naturally occurring products it specifics”. Furthermore, the bill would be non-retroactive, thereby allowing existing patents to run until their expiration approximately 20 years from their issuance. The bill has been referred to the Committee of the Judiciary (Library of Congress, 2007).

The Genomics and Personalized Medicine Act of 2007

The Genomics and Personalized Medicine Act of 2007 (S.976.IS), introduced in the Senate March 23, 2007 by Mr. Obama (D-IL) and Mr. Burr (D-IL) is essentially a relatively large research and development-spending bill.

The stated purpose of this bill is “To secure the promise of personalized medicine for all Americans by expanding and accelerating genomics research and initiatives to improve the accuracy of disease diagnosis, increase the safety of drugs, and identify novel treatments.”

In essence, the bill’s intended purpose is to spur development in pharmacogenomics via increased governmental communication, federal funding, and the creation of a National Biobank.

The key points of this bill include “$75,000,000 for fiscal year 2009, and such sums as may be necessary for each of fiscal years 2010 through 2014…” for the a national biobanking initiative. In addition, the bill makes a provision with “…$1,000,000 for fiscal years 2008 and 2009…” for developing a Genomics and personalized Medicine Interagency Working Group – a governmental advisory panel.

Furthermore, the bill allocates “…$5,000,000 for fiscal year 2008 and such sums as may be necessary for each of fiscal years 2009 through 2013…” for related educational grants and for the “integration of genetics and genomics into all aspects of clinical and public health practice by promoting genetics and genomics competency across all clinical, public health, and laboratory disciplines through the development and dissemination of health professional guidelines”.

Currently this bill has been referred to the Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions.

The Genetic Nondiscrimination Act of 2007 (GINA)

The Genetic Nondiscrimination Act of 2007 (GINA) (H.R. 493.EH), introduced by Rep. Louise Slaughter (D-NY) on January 16th, 2007 and passed by the House of Representatives on April 30th, 2007, is a comprehensive attempt to establish “…a national and uniform basic standard necessary to fully protect the public from discrimination and allay their concer [JS1] ns about the potential for discrimination, thereby allowing individuals to take advantage of genetic testing, technologies, research, and new therapies ”.

In essence, the bill prohibits health insurance companies from raising insurance premiums, excluding coverage, or denying insurance based on a preexisting genetic conditions. Employers would be prohibited from inquiring about one’s genetic condition except when workplace safety is a concern. In the event that personal genetic information is known, the employer would be required to keep it in a safe and separate place from other employee documents and would be barred from sharing the information. Furthermore, employee pay and working conditions could not be based on any genetic information.

Indeed, forty-one states have laws that protect the public from genetic discrimination by insurance companies, and 32 states have laws protecting their citizens from genetic discrimination in the workplace. In addition, an Executive Order was issued in 2000 that prohibits genetic discrimination in the workplace for federal employees (NIH, 2007). The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) also provides protection from genetic discrimination. However, HIPAA does not (1) prohibit the use of genetic information as a basis for charging a group more for health insurance or (2) limit the collection of genetic information by insurers and prohibit insurers from requiring an individual to take a genetic test or (3) limit the disclosure of genetic information by insurers or (4) apply to individual health insurers except if covered by the portability provision (NIH, 2007).

For over twelve years, Congress has officially considered legislation to ensure comprehensive genetic discrimination protection for all Americans. This particular incarnation of the bill was considered by three House committees - the Committee on Education and the Workforce, the Committee on Energy and Commerce, and the Committee on Ways and Means, and was passed in the U.S. House of Representatives by a vote of 420-3. However, it has been stalled for further consideration by one unidentified senator who has chosen to remain anonymous and who is capable, according to senate rules, of stalling the bill indefinitely, despite the wide bipartisan support in addition to White House support (Pollitz, 2007).

Conclusion
Whatever one’s political inclination, these three bills will, if passed, most certainly have a dramatic impact on genomic research and development and testing in both the public and private domains.

As highly educated specialized professionals it is our duty to get involved and express our professional opinions regarding these bills. For it is we genetic professionals, who understand the complexity and can see the practicality (or lack of same) of the laws that regulate what we do and how it impacts our patients.

Short statements are often more successful in conveying your political opinion when communicating with you representative. With this in mind, please take a moment to review the pending bills and call or write your congressional representative with your professional opinions and comments.

For more information concerning these and other U.S. congressional bills and to identify your congressional representatives please see: http://www.govtrack.us/.

Sources
Becerra, Weldon. The Genomic Research and Accessibility Act, 2007 (H.R.977.IH), 2007.

Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/index.html, 2007.

NIH, National Human Genome Research Institute - Legislation on Genetic Discrimination, http://www.genome.gov/10002077#2, March 2007.

Obama, Barack and Burr, Richard. The Genomics and Personalized Medicine Act of 2007 (S.976.IS), 2007.

Pollitz, Karen. NPR Talk of the Nation Science Friday - Genetic Discrimination Protection, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=10136888, May 11, 2007.

Slaughter, Louise. The Genetic Nondiscrimination Act of 2007 (GINA) (H.R. 493.EH), 2007.

Patenting Policies As Applied To Genetics

2007-03-01T21:18:00.000-08:00

(First published in The Journal of The Association of Genetic Technologists 2008;33(1):17-19)

A patent (Latin, patere, meaning, to lay open) is a document issued by the federal government that grants to its owner a legally enforceable right to restrict others from practicing the invention described and claimed therein. Congress allows this right with the intention of encouraging public disclosure of technical advances and providing an incentive for investing in commercialization. As with other forms of property the rights symbolized by a patent can be inherited, sold, rented, mortgaged and even taxed. When a patent expires, the right to restriction ceases.

In recent history, the subject of what can be patented has been a focus of great concern, specifically with regard to the patenting of genes and related natural compounds. Although the surrounding controversial debate is beyond the scope of this article, the technical aspects of the patenting of genetic elements are reviewed herein in an effort to understand the policies and rules that govern the patenting process of them in the United States.

Note that even if someone holds a patent on a specific gene or protein, a second inventor can obtain a patent on a new use for that gene or protein. Consequently, patent stacking in conjunction with license royalty and fee stacking can result in very high costs associated with conducting research and clinical diagnostic genetic tests. The consequences can include lower health care standards, reduced availability and hindered future development of treatments and tests.

What is Patentable?
In accordance with the laws enacted by Congress, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) in the Department of Commerce determines if something can be patented.

The following categories are subject to possible patent issuance by the USPTO:
• A process
• A machine
• An article of manufacture
• A composition of matter
• Any new and useful improvement to an invention
(that falls under any of these categories).

What Cannot be Patented?
Patents have been prohibited by Congress in only a few cases where the issuance of a patent was clearly contrary to the public interest such as certain medical and surgical procedures and nuclear weapons. In addition, a patent on a human being is strictly prohibited, regardless of circumstances.

Apart from these specific items, in accordance with USPTO
rules, it is not permissible to patent the following:
• Naturally occurring organisms
• Laws of nature
• Natural or physical phenomena
• Abstract ideas
• Natural compounds (except in their purified state)

Although one cannot patent a naturally occurring gene, protein or any other natural compound as it exists in the body, one can patent a gene, protein or other natural compound that has been isolated from the body and is useful in that form as a pharmaceutical drug, screening assay or other application.

Judging Criteria
A patent application is judged on four criteria:
1. Useful
2. Novel
3. Nonobvious
4. Enablement

With respect to this judging criteria, in terms of genetics, one
must be able to:
1. Specify how the product functions in nature
2. Identify the genetic sequences
3. Specify the sequence’s product
4. Enable one skilled in the field to use the sequence for its stated purpose

Categories of Gene Patents
Patents on Genes and Gene Fragments (ESTs)
Genes and gene fragments are considered patentable items. The full sequence and function of gene fragments and indeed, genes, are not always known. Consequently, the patent applications submitted often identify their utility with vague definitions such as acting as a scientific probe to help find a gene, another gene fragment or to map a chromosome.
The controversy revolving around vague utility definitions regarding gene and gene fragments culminated in 1999 when the USPTO released stiffer interim guidelines stating that "more usefulness"—specifically how the product functions in nature—must now be shown before gene fragments are considered patentable. The new rules call for "specific and substantial utility that is credible."

Interestingly, the same sequence can be patented more than once; e.g., both an expressed sequence tag (EST) and the full- length gene of the EST can be patented. In general, however, PTO guidelines allow EST applicants, if they come first, to claim "dominance" over the full gene, implicitly, through use of legal language.

Patents on SNPs
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) occur every 100 to 1000 bases along the 3-billion-base human genome and can occur in both coding and noncoding regions. SNPs may predispose people to disease or influence their response to disease; environmental insults such as bacteria, viruses, toxins, and chemicals; and drugs and therapies. SNPs are considered patentable material by the USPTO.

In April 1999, a number of large pharmaceutical and electronic companies and the U.K. Wellcome Trust, the U.K.’s largest non governmental source of biomedical research funds, established a non-profit foundation to find and map 300,000 common SNPs. In fact, 1.8 million SNPs were identified. The consortium planned to patent all the SNPs identified in order to prevent others from patenting the same information. The information is freely accessible to the public on the World Wide Web. This was in hopes of allowing open access to the information rather than have it controlled by private corporations.

Patenting Stem Cells and Cell Lines
Cell lines and genetically modified single-cell organisms are considered patentable material. Patents for stem cells from monkeys and other organisms have already been issued. Consequently, human embryonic stem cells are technically patentable.

Patenting Gene Tests
Genetic tests are patentable and are usually patented and licensed by the owners of the disease gene patent.

The Patenting Process
Although a patent is based on the "first to invent" principle, inventors have a one-year grace period to file a patent after they publish. Normally the issuance of a patent can take anywhere from 18 months to three years.
In general, the patenting process for biologicals usually involves the following steps:

• File a provisional patent.
• File a utility patent application which includes:
• A transmittal form which identifies the name of the applicant, the type of application, the title of the invention and the contents of the application.
• A fee transmittal form which is used to calculate the appropriate fee.
• A specification which is a written description of the invention and the manner or process of making and using it.
• A drawing, if necessary, to describe the invention.
• An oath/declaration signed by all the inventors.
• A sequence listing, disclosing pertinent nucleotide/amino
acid sequences.
• A deposit of a sample of the new invention (in some
cases) into one of the 26 worldwide culture depositories.
Specimens must be capable of self-replication either
directly or indirectly, and must be viable for at least 30
years.

Fees
In general, patenting process fees are as follows:
• A provisional patent: $150.
• A utility patent application: ~$760.
• The fees due upon issue: $1,210.
• The maintenance fees for patents are $940 due at 3.5 years,
$1,900 at 7.5 years and $2,910 at 11.5 years.
• Other miscellaneous fees may apply.
• Professionally prepared patents can range from $2,000 to
$15,000, depending upon the complexity of the patent.

Patent Expiration
Patents are in effect for 20 years; 21 if a provisional patent is
filed and 20+ years if an extension is requested. Several new rules
have been implemented regarding patent expiration.
1. If a U.S. Patent Application was filed by June 7, 1995 and
if it was issued before June 8, 1978, then the patent expires
17 years from issuance.
2. If the patent was filed by June 7, 1995, and if the patent
issues after June 7, 1978, then the patent expires the later
of 17 years from issuance, or 20 years from filing of earliest
U.S. patent application.
3. If the patent was filed after June 7, 1995, then the patent
expires 20 years from filing of application.
It should be noted that these periods remain as long as the
maintenance fees are paid. Also, up to five years are added in
cases of marketing delay due to an FDA or Virus-Serum-Toxin
approval process.

Patent Infringement
In the event that a patent is infringed upon, an injuction is
issued to the patent infringer, which prohibits that party from
continuing a particular activity. In the event the infringer fails
to adhere to the injunction, that party faces civil or criminal
contempt of court and may have to pay damages or sanctions
for failing to follow the court’s order. Regardless, a civil lawsuit
can be filled immediately in a federal district court accusing the
potential infringer of infringing a U.S. patent and damages may
be awarded.

All genome sequences, in addition to information of other
genetic elements generated by the Human Genome Project, have
been deposited into GenBank, a public database freely accessible
by anyone with a connection to the Internet. Because patent
applications are confidential until a patent is issued, those who use
sequences from such public databases actually risk facing a future
injunction if those sequences turn out to be patented by a private
company on the basis of previously filed patent applications.
It appears that the highly profitable drug and biotech companies,
in particular, tend to engage in strict patent enforcement. This is
likely due to the amount of funds required to broadly enforce their
patent licenses, agreements or restrictions.

U.S. Patents Recognition
A U.S. patent is not recognized worldwide. As an interim
solution, the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) application process
allows an inventor to file a single application simultaneously in
each of a number of industrialized countries. However, eventually
(within 18 months) the inventor must, through the PCT process,
obtain a patent in each country for which protection is sought.

Who Owns What?
Major holders of U.S. gene-based patents include the U.S.
government, public and private universities, pharmaceutical and
biotechnological companies.

A major patent holder of genetic tests is Athena Diagnostics
(Worcester, MA) which holds patents on the following tests,
among others:

• Autosomal Dominant Ataxia
• Complete DMD Evaluation
• Complete Myotonic Dystrophy Evaluation
• Friedreich Ataxia DNA Test
• Osteogenesis Imperfecta Evaluation
• Partial DMD Sequencing
• SCA1,2,3,6,7,8 DNA Test
• Spinal Muscular Atrophy Test
Roche (Nutley, NJ) holds an exceptionally large number of
genetic testing-related patents holdings. Although a number of
their patents recently expired, the following are some genetic
testing related processes that remain under patent protection:
• Methods for Generating ssDNA by PCR
• Methods for DNA Sequencing with Taq
• HLA Typing Method and DNA Probes Used Therein
• Reverse Transcription with Thermostable DNA
Polymerases – High Temp. Reverse Transcription
• Methods for HLA DP Typing
• Method for Determining the Relative Amount of Viral
Nucleic Acid Segment in a Sample by the PCR
• Reverse Transcription with Thermus thermophilus
Polymerase
• Method and Reagents for HLA Class 1A Locus DNA
Typing
• Process for Detecting Specific Nucleotide Variations and
Genetic Polymorphisms Present in Nucleic Acids
• Quantitation of Nucleic Acids Using PCR
• Methods for In-Solution Quenching of Fluorescently
Labeled Oligo Probes
• Method for HLA SP Typing
• Oligo Primers for HLA Class I B Locus DNA Typing
• Methods for coupled High Temperature Reverse
Transcription and PCR
• Detection of Nucleic Acids Using a Hairpin Forming
Oligonucleotide Primer and Energy Transfer Detection
System
• Process for Detecting Specific Nucleotide variations and
Genetic Polymorphisms Present in Nucleic Acids
• Unconventional Nucleotide Substitution in Temp.
Selective RT-PCR
• Characterization and Detection of Sequences Associated
with Autoimmune Diseases
• Methods and Reagents for HLA DR beta DNA Typing
• Amplification Using a Reversibly Inactivated
Thermostable Enzyme
• Reagents and Methods for Coupled High Temp. Reverse
Transcription and Polymerase Chain Reactions
• Amplification Using a Reversibly Inactivated
Thermostable Enzyme
• Reaction Mixture for Detection of Target Nucleic Acids
• Homogeneous Methods for Nucleic Acid Amplification
and Detection
• Stabilized Thermostable Nucleic Acids Polymerase
Compositions Containing Non-Ionic Polymeric Detergents
• Methods and Devices for Homogeneous Nucleic Acid
Amplification and Detection
Other biotech companies well known for their patenting
efforts included the following:
• Myriad Genetics (Salt Lake City, UT) – genetic testing of
breast/ovarian cancer genes (BRCA1, 2)
• Bio-Rad Laboratories (Hercules, CA) –genetic testing of
Hemochromatosis and Sickle Cell Anemia
Licenses, Royalties and Fees
Licenses usually involve an upfront fee, plus a royalty charge
per test. Usually 9-20% of the cost of genetic testing goes to
royalties fees. Examples of royalty charges are as follows:
• Hemochromotosis – $20/test
• Canavan Disease – $12.50/test
• Gaucher Disease – $5/test
• Cystic Fibrosis – ~$2/test (depending on volume)
• use of Roche Taqman (a DNA polymerase) – $10/test

Conclusion
As of the end of 2001, the PTO had issued over 6,500 patents
covering gene and open reading frame sequences (DNA sequences
that code for proteins). Of these, over 1,300 patents were for
human genes or open reading frames. To date more than 20,000
applications for genes, DNA fragments, SNPs and so forth have
been submitted for review. Currently over three million genome-
related patent applications have been filed.

Unlike the early 90s, where patenting was "in vogue" and
tended to lead to a high profile and/or high stock prices it has
been noted that institutions and companies now seldom release
information on the number of patent applications filed, in an
apparent effort to quell public discourse and concern for the
patenting of genetic elements.

Sources
American Intellectual Property Law Association, An Overview of
Intellectual Property, What is a Patent, a Trademark, and a Copyright?
1995.

Athena Diagnostics, http://www.athenadiagnostics.com, 2006.
BIO (Biotechnology Industry Organization), http://www.bio.org/ip/primer/, 2006.

Bio-Rad Laboratories, http://www.bio-rad.com, 2006.

Coverage and Reimbursement of Genetic Tests and Services, Report of
the Secretary Advisor Committee and Genetics, Health and Society,
Department of Health and Human Services USA, Feb. 2006.

Garber, Ken, Homestead 2000: The Genome, http://www.signalsmag.com/
signalsmag.nsf/0/FD168FB6C42ACF6E882568950015E2D0, Signals
Online Magazine, 2000.

The Human Genome Project – Genetics and Patenting, http://www.ornl.
gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/patents.shtml, 2006.
U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), http://www.uspto.gov/, 2006.

Letter to The Economist: How The Economist Can Harm the Planet

2006-12-22T20:27:00.000-08:00

From: Coovadia, Adam Sent: Friday, December 22, 2006 3:29 PM
To: 'letters@economist.com'
Subject: How The Economist Can Harm the Planet

Recently you published an article cover titled "Why Ethical Food Harms the Planet". Although there are far more issues surrounding this complex topic than those that were presented (for an example, please see http://www.harpers.org/TheOilWeEat.html), this brief story did indeed provide some insight. Unfortunately, however, the front-page title is seriously flawed. At best, based on the information you published, the article should have been titled “How Ethical Food Could Harm the Planet”. You see, despite being obviously biased, your conclusion that a market for the (supposedly environmentally damaging) ethical food can help encourage and foster political change was not conveyed in any way in the chosen title. In fact, you actually contradicted yourselves by using an irresponsible and inaccurate one. In addition, as reflected by the differing opinions presented within this article, there is only some evidence that ethical food may harm the planet but it is by no means accepted as scientific fact. Yet in the headline on the cover you appear to have precluded the scientific inquiry.

I gather you forsook good journalism for sales. Perhaps you should start placing The Economist at the supermarket checkout counter, given your choice on this one.

Your Unhappy Subscriber,

Adam Coovadia

Bono Tax Avoider - It Gots No Zing!

2006-11-03T20:33:00.000-08:00

From: Adam Coovadia [mailto:adam@electricscribe.org]
Sent: Friday, November 03, 2006 6:14 PM
To: 'chatterbox@slate.com'Subject: In Need of a Good Story

Dear Mr. Noah,

Hypocrisy is insincerity by virtue of pretending to have qualities or beliefs that you do not really have (wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn). Tax evasion is fraud committed by filing false tax returns, or not filing tax returns at all (http://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/index.php/Tax_evasion).

It would have been wise for you to have read a definition of these words before lashing out with words you do not understand in your recent article titled "Bono, Superstar of Tax Evasion". Your application of these words to U2's recent business dealings is, at best, disingenuous and, at worst, really poor English. To your credit, I have noticed that the title of this article appears to have been corrected after it's print publication in at least one newspaper. The article's title now reads, with considerable less zing, I might add: "Bono, Tax Avoider". Bravo on the identification of a flaw in your article after print publication.

Perhaps, along with certain words, you do not understand the complexity of third world poverty as exemplified by your foolish comparison of the industrialized poor with that of the world's extreme destitute. Furthermore, I would suspect that you, sir, have never offered to pay more taxes to your country in order for them to properly disperse the funds for your pet issues. This is, after all, the primary concern of your article with regard to your hypocritical and incorrect accusation of Bono's hypocrisy.

At the very least, you certainly do provide the readers of this Enquirer-like article with a really good example of irony. Moving forward, I recommend you (and your editors) buy a dictionary before attempting to comprehend what I have written and, most certainly, before publishing future articles that attempt to discredit someone else. In fact, in this instance you managed to discredit yourself.

Shame on you and the editors of your article for publishing such rubbish.

Sincerely,

Adam Coovadia

Myth #1: John Stossel is a Journalist (A Letter to 20/20)

2005-01-29T20:42:00.000-08:00

This evening I unfortunately tuned in to watch 20/20 and saw the John Stossel segment on myths.

Stossel consistently presented his own interpretation of selected facts and colored it vividly with his ideology.

Indeed, all of the issues he presented are far more complex than the carefully crafted two to three minute summary he provided your millions of viewers.

Forgive me but I did not realize Stossel is a sociologist, economist, statistician, public policy expert, scientist or what ever have you.

One thing he is certainly not is a journalist.

Apparently he has much more in common with Geraldo than a tacky mustache.

Perhaps he should try the FOX News Channel. I think he would fit in rather well.

Sincerely,

Adam Coovadia

A Conversation with a Bushie

2004-05-11T21:30:00.000-07:00

-----Original Message-----From: Melissa Leve [mailto:melpie1@lslink.com] Sent: Tuesday, May 11, 2004 9:35 PM To: Adam CoovadiaSubject: Re: (no subject)

YES, I AGREE. BUT DID YOU REALLY HAVE TO SAY CHRIST'S TESTICLES?

----- Original Message -----
From: Adam Coovadia
To: 'Melissa Leve'
Sent: Tuesday, May 11, 2004 9:30 PM
Subject: RE: (no subject)
I most certainly agree.

And I should be able to say "under the God of Thunder and Rock and Roll" or "under Christ's testicles" if I choose to without a bunch of Christian conservatives whining about how they are terribly offended, wouldn't you agree?

-----Original Message-----From: Melissa Leve [mailto:melpie1@lslink.com] Sent: Tuesday, May 11, 2004 9:14 PMTo: Adam CoovadiaSubject: Re: (no subject)

I was not implying that one should be forced to say "under God," however I do feel that those who wish to include it when reciting the pledge should be able to do so without a bunch of liberals whining about how they are terribly offended.

----- Original Message -----
From: Adam Coovadia
To: 'Melissa Leve'
Sent: Monday, May 10, 2004 10:16 PM
Subject: RE: (no subject)

I think the original pledge of allegiance is a beautiful thing. And if one wishes to say "under god" on their own, they should.

Liberty is the power to do as one pleases.

Justice is the quality of being just, impartial, or fair.

Exactly how does being forced to say "under god" allow liberty and justice for all?

Sound like another case of religious fanaticism to me. But I don't need to tell you that.

-----Original Message-----From: Melissa Leve [mailto:melpie1@lslink.com] Sent: Sunday, May 09, 2004 8:58 AMTo: Adam CoovadiaSubject: Fw: (no subject)

Pledge of Allegiance>>> > In light of the recent appeals court ruling in California, with respectto> the Pledge of Allegiance, the following recollection from Senator John> McCain is very appropriate:.> > "The Pledge of Allegiance -Senator John McCain> >> >> > As you may know, I spent five and one half years as a prisoner of war> during the Vietnam War. In the early years of our imprisonment, the NVAkept> us in solitary confinement or two or three to a cell. In 1971 the NVAmoved> us from these conditions of isolation into large rooms with as many as 30to> 40 men to a room.> >> > This was, as you can imagine, a wonderful change and was a direct result> of the efforts of millions of Americans on behalf of a few hundred POWs> 10,000 miles from home.> >> > One of the men who moved into my room was a young man named Mike> Christian. Mike came from a small town nearSelma, Alabama. He didn't weara> pair of shoes until he was 13 years old. At 17, he enlisted in the USNavy.> He later earned a commission by going to Officer Training School. Then he> became a Naval Flight Officer and was shot down and captured in 1967. Mike> had a keen and deep appreciation of the opportunities this country and our> military provide for people who want to work and want to succeed.> >> > As part of the change in treatment, the Vietnamese allowed someprisoners> to receive packages from home. In some of these packages werehandkerchiefs,> scarves and other items of clothing.> >> > Mike got himself a bamboo needle. Over a period of a couple of months,he> created an American flag and sewed on the inside of his shirt. Every> afternoon, before we had a bowl of soup,we would hang Mike's shirt on the> wall of the cell and say the Pledge of Allegiance.> >> > I know the Pledge of Allegiance may not seem the most important part of> our day now, but I can assure you that in that stark cell it was indeedthe> most important and meaningful event.> >> > One day the Vietnamese searched our cell, as they did periodically, and> discovered Mike's shirt with the flag sewn inside, and removed it. That> evening they returned, opened the door of the cell, and for the benefit of> all of us, beat Mike Christian severely for the next couple of hours.> >> > Then, they opened the door of the cell and threw him in. We cleaned himup> as well as we could.> >> > The cell in which we lived had a concrete slab in the middle on which we> slept. Four naked light bulbs hung in each corner of the room.> >> > As I said, we tried to clean up Mike as well as we could. After the> excitement died down, I looked in the corner of the room, and sittingthere> beneath that dim light bulb with a piece of red cloth, another shirt> > and his bamboo needle, was my friend, Mike Christian.> >> > He was sitting there with his eyes almost shut from the beating he had> received, making another American flag.> >> > He was not making the flag because it made Mike Christian feel better.> >> > He was making that flag because he knew how important it was to us to be> able to Pledge our allegiance to our flag and country.> >> > So the next time you say the Pledge of Allegiance, you must never forget> the sacrifice and courage that thousands of Americans have made to buildour> nation and promote freedom around the world.You must remember our duty,our> honor, and our country.> >> > "I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America and to> the republic for which it stands, one nation under God, indivisible, with> liberty and justice for all."> >> > PASS THIS ON... and on... and on!> >> >> >> >

ACHOO Syndrome

2003-02-28T17:58:00.000-08:00

Sternutation, or sneezing, can be provoked by a slew of "bewildering nonsensical stimuli"(1) including combing ones hair, tweezing eyebrows, rubbing the inner corner of the eye, and even by eating too much. Perhaps the most common peculiar cause of the sneezing reflex is the exposure to bright light.

First described as a disorder in 1978, ACHOO syndrome (an acronym for "Autosomal Dominant Compelling Helio-Ophthalmic Outburst Syndrome") is a genetically inherited condition characterized by nearly uncontrollable sneezing provoked by the sudden exposure to intensely bright light, usually sunlight. Interestingly, it is genetics that also dictates the number of successive sneezes, which can range from 2 or 3 to as many as 43.

An estimated 20 to 30 percent of the population has this amusing trait, which is also referred to as the Photic Sneeze Reflex.

"Public awareness of the ACHOO syndrome is much more widespread than one might guess, to the point that it has entered into the popular wisdom conveyed to preschoolers. In a best-selling children's book by Berenstain and Berenstain (1981), Papa and Mama Bear are taking Sister Bear and Brother Bear to their pediatrician, Dr. Grizzly, for a check-up. The cubs are expressing their apprehension about the possibility of injections when Papa Bear suddenly cuts loose with an explosive sneeze. 'Bless you!' said Mama.' 'It's just this bright sunlight,' sniffed Papa. 'I never get sick.'"(2)

Sources

(1)The Skinny on Strange Sneezing Situationsby Hannah Holmes, Discovery.com, 1997.

(2)ACHOO Syndromeby Victor A. McKusick, OMIM, Johns Hopkins University Last Updated 6/4/1986

Challenging Florida's Department of Health: Variance for Petition Granted

2002-06-21T12:55:00.000-07:00

http://faw.dos.state.fl.us/newfaw/FawVolumeFolders2002/2831/2831doc.pdf

Challenging Florida's Dept. of Health: Filling a Petition for Variance

2002-05-20T12:59:00.000-07:00

http://faw.dos.state.fl.us/newfaw/FawVolumeFolders2002/2822/2822doc.pdf

Leishmania: Shoo Fly, Don't Mutilate Me

2001-10-07T14:50:00.000-07:00

Sand Flies (Lutzomyia spp) are commonly considered a nuisance for their blood-sucking habits. Some species of this group, however, are much more than a nuisance. Their bite can result in mutilation and even death.

Leishmaniasis - also known as "kala-azar", "black fever" or "black sickness" - is a group of parasitic diseases transmitted by approximately 30 of the existing 500 species of phlebotomine (blood sucking) sand flies. The parasite, a group of protazoa, Leishmania spp, is the causative agent of the disease. Like mosquitoes, only the adult females suck blood, and therefore only the females transmit the disease.

Cutaneous forms of the disease (those affecting the skin) normally produce skin ulcers on the exposed parts of the body such as the face, arms and legs. The disease can produce a large number of lesions - sometimes up to 200 - causing serious disability and permanent scarring. Autoinoculation (the process of a victim re-infecting him/herself) of various parts of the body with the fingers can occur from the cutaneous lesions.

In mucocutaneous forms of leishmaniasis, (those affecting the mucous and skin) lesions can lead to partial or total destruction of the mucus membranes of the nose, mouth and throat cavities.
Visceral leishmaniasis (the form which affects internal organs) is the most severe. It is characterized by irregular bouts of fever, substantial weight loss, swelling of the spleen, liver and lymph nodes, and occasionally acute anemia. Left untreated the disease is usually fatal with fatality rates up to 100%. The disease typically manifests itself months - sometimes even years - after a person has become infected.

Although leishmaniasis primarily infects animals, with humans constituting only an accidental and sporadic host, person-to-person transmission does occur in areas with high infection rates. Dogs constitute a reservoir of infection, as do rodents, wolves, foxes and jackals.
Pharmacological treatment for the disease has proven useful although drug resistance is posing a threat.

Approximately 12 million people throughout the world suffer from the disease with an estimated 1.5-2 million people affected annually. According to WHO, "…the public health impact of the leishmaniases has been grossly underestimated, mainly due to lack of awareness of its serious impact on health. Over the last 10 years endemic regions have been spreading further a field and there has been a sharp increase in the number of recorded cases of the disease."
Leishmaniasis is found in approximately 90 tropical and subtropical countries around the world including Bangladesh, Brazil, India, Nepal, and areas such as southern Europe and the Middle East. Cases have also been reported in southern Texas and Florida. An epidemic of cutaneous leishmaniasis is ongoing in Kabul, Afghanistan with an estimated 200,000 cases.

Sources
Leishmaniasis, World Health Organization (WHO), 2001.

Cure for Fatal Tropical Disease - Oral Treatment of Leishmaniasis, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemsity, Feb. 18, 2000.

Leishmaniasis Health Information for International Travel, Center of Disease Control (CDC), 2001-2002.

A List of Leishmaniasis Links

Vampire Bats: Adding Insult to Injury

2001-10-01T14:53:00.000-07:00

Despite the connotations of its name, a vampire bat doesn't actually suck blood from the neck of its victim. Rather, the bat uses its teeth to make a small incision in its host, and laps up the blood with its tongue.

As horrific as that thought is to most people, the vampire bat adds insult to injury by urinating on its victim while it drinks. To maximize its nutrient intake, Desmodus rotundus, a common vampire bat, produces copious amounts of very dilute urine within minutes of opening the wound. The feeling of the warm fluid running down the victim's neck often awakens it abruptly, thereby concluding the feeding.

Vampire bats are sanguivorous, meaning they live on blood exclusively. Their most common victims are mammals, including cattle, horses, pigs, burros, and occasionally humans. The White-winged (Diaemus youngi) and Hairy-legged (Diphylla ecaudata) vampire bats feed primarily on the blood of birds.

Chemicals in the bat's saliva act as an anesthetic that numbs the skin of its victims and prevents them from awakening, while anticoagulants injected into the wound help prevent blood from clotting.

Scientists recently discovered that the anticoagulant in vampire bat saliva is twenty times stronger than any other known anti-clotting agent. This unique glycoprotein, named Draculin, may someday be used to aid in the preventative treatment of heart attacks and strokes.
The metabolic rate of a vampire bat is so high it can die of starvation within three days. Vampire bats are reported to support their roost mates by regurgitating blood to bats that are unable to find food; an act that appears to be reciprocal. It also appears to be enforced by the group, as bats that do not reciprocate are not tolerated.

Like other bats, vampire bats find their prey using a combination of echolocation, smell, and sound. They fly just approximately one meter above the ground and use special heat sensors in their noses to find blood vessels that are close to the skin of their victims. Along with flying, vampire bats can run, jump, and hop with great speed, using their chest muscles to fling themselves skyward. Vampire bats are nocturnal creatures.

Vampire bats inhabit the arid and humid regions of the tropics and subtropics, with their distribution focused around Central and South America. They are considered agricultural pests in Latin America, and control programs have been initiated in these areas. However, millions of beneficial fruit-and insect-eating bats are also destroyed because people mistake them for vampire bats.

Sources
Purification and partial characterization of draculin, the anticoagulant factor present in the saliva of vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus), Apitz-Castro R, Beguin S, Tablante A, Bartoli F, Holt JC, Hemker HC., Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientificas (IVIC), Caracas.Thromb Haemost 1995 Jan;73(1):94-100.

The Biogeography of Vampire Bat (Desmondus rotundas), San Francisco State University - Department of Geography, by Nikki Michel, Fall 1999.
Vampire Batsby Patrick Merrick (July 2000)

Glow-in-the-Darks

2001-08-10T13:04:00.000-07:00

Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) is a world famous molecule, renowned for its power to make living animals glow.

Originally derived from the bioluminescent jellyfish Aquoria Victoria, GFP is most frequently used for tagging specific proteins in a cell for the scientific purpose of detecting their presence or movement, or more precisely, their expression and localization.

The biotechnological process is as follows: the GFP gene is attached to the gene of interest. Once the gene is expressed into protein, the new protein glows green, wherever it is present. The technology is already an invaluable research tool for detecting successful genetic manipulation, but its promise doesn’t stop there. The technology may eventually guide surgeons in cutting away cancerous tissues that have been made to glow through GFP modification.

Animals that have been GFP genetically modified for the strict purpose of scientific research include laboratory mice, fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), zebrafish (Brachydanio rerio), frogs (Xenopus sp), roundworms (Caenorhabditis elegans), and even a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta).

Fortunately, the GFP gene is not harmful to the genetically modified animal.
Transgenic, GFP-modified animals have become the subject of both commercial and artistic development. Green, glowing Medaka fish (Oryzias latipes) were developed with the aim of marketing them as the world's first glow-in-the dark pet, expected for a commercial release approximately six months from now. GFP-modified grass is under development, with the aim of creating grass that remains green even when dead.

The enhanced GFP (EGFP) rabbit, "Alba", was developed for the purposes of creating transgenic art: “A new art form based on the use of genetic engineering to transfer natural or synthetic genes to an organism, to create unique living beings.” according to the artist.
Other products in the glow-in-the-dark industry involve inanimate objects such as squirt guns reportedly loaded with genes similar to the GFP genes. The gun sprays a stream of bioluminescent water that glows on contact with any substance containing calcium, such as our skin. Products including glow-in-the-dark hair mousse, ink and consumables such as cake frosting, dark beer and champagne are future developmental prospects.

The GFP is based on fluorophore properties; a molecule that absorbs light at a specific spectrum and emits it at another. Unlike phosphorescence, which requires a lag time for the emission of light, the GFP fluoresces spontaneously, but only after being exposed to a certain wavelength of light. In the case of Alba the “GFP Bunny”, the animal only glows after being exposed to blue light (with a maximum excitation of 488 nm).

Sources

Green Fluorescent Protein as a Marker for Gene Expression , by M. Chalfie, Y. Tu, G. Euskirchen, W.W. Ward, D.C. Prasher, Science. Vol. 263 . 11 (Febuary 1994).

GFP Applications Page - a list of related books and links.by Wallace Marshall of Yale University Dept. of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology.

The Principles of Protein Structureby Birkbeck College, University of London.

Be My Tongue

2001-08-07T13:05:00.000-07:00

Parasites come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes and can often have very damaging affects on their hosts. One creature is unique among this group in that it is the only known parasite that functionally replaces an organ.

Cymothoa exigua, a crustacean, makes its home inside the mouth of a fish. It makes itself so much at home, in fact, that it actually removes, than takes over the duties of, its host's tongue.
The parasite does not actually bite off the host's existing tongue. It does, however, suck enough blood from it that the organ shrivels-up and atrophies. The parasite then employs hooks on its underside to attach itself to the remaining stub. Consequently, the host is able to use it as a replacement tongue for food manipulation, allowing the host to eat as usual. C. exiqua grabs a meal from the particles that float free as the fish eats.

The parasite appears to be quite selective in choosing the mouth in which it chooses to reside. The spotted rose snapper, also known as Lutjanus guttatus, is the crustacean's only known host. Both creatures are common inhabitants of the Gulf of California.

Sources

Tongue replacement in a marine fish (Lutjanus guttatus) by a parasitic isopod (Crustacea: Isopoda), Copeia 3: 813-816 (1983).by Brusca, R. C. and M. R. Gilligan

Parasite Rex: Inside the Bizarre World of Nature's Most Dangerous Creatures (2000)by Carl Zimmer

Rock Life

2001-08-03T13:05:00.000-07:00

Three hundred and twenty-six years ago, the Royal Society (a British scientific academy whose members included Sir. Isaac Newton) was shocked by the report from Antony van Leeuwenhoek that microbes, or animalcules as he called it, existed all around us. At that time, the cheese mite was believed to be the smallest possible living creature. Although it has been suggested for over 10 years now, today the scientific world ponders the possible existence of something even smaller than microbes.

Nanobes (NAN-obes) call into question the minimum size requirements for terrestrial life. Many biologist contend that these creatures are simply too small to contain the genetic material and cell processes believed to be required for life.
At 20 to 150 nanometers in length, nanobes are smaller than the smallest known bacterium and roughly the same size as viruses (which are considered nonliving because they require a host to reproduce).

Laboratory analysis of nanobes indicate the presence of DNA, as well as distinct cell membranes. Furthermore, a number of these organisms are reportedly capable of degrading toxic organic compounds, releasing enzymes into their surroundings and even producing antibiotics.
Discovered four years ago in ancient sandstones retrieved from an oil drilling site three to five miles below the Western Australian seabed, the fuzzy tangles of filaments (less than 1/100,000 mm wide) resemble fungi and appear to reproduce quickly, forming dense colonies of tendrils. In fact, the structures are reportedly capable of growing and increasing in number spontaneously on freshly fractured rock - becoming visible to the naked eye within 2 to 3 weeks.

Nanobes can withstand extreme atmospheric pressure, and temperatures as high as 170oC. They have been found living deep within rock in the earth crust. These facts provide evidence that they may be related to Archeaebacteria, ancient organisms renowned for their ability to live in extreme environments.

The discovery of nanobes has spawned a universal hunt for the smallest living things and provides additional weight to the claims concerning nanofossils within the notorious Martian meteorite ALH84001. Up to now, the argument against nanofossils being within the Martian rock relied strongly on there being no living examples of nano-sized cells. Although, the discovered "nanobes" are not identical to the structures within ALH84001, they are roughly the same size.

Sources

Novel-nano Microorganisms from Australian Sandstones American Mineralogist, Vol. 83 p:1541-1550, 1988. by P.J.R. Uwins, R.I. Webb, P. Taylor.

Morphological and Microstructural Characterization of Novel Nano-organisms - The Center for Microscopy and Microanalysis, The University of Queensland, Australia.

ALH84001 Sample Summary by Nasa

Microbe Hunters by Paul De Kruif

Monster Tumors

2001-04-27T13:52:00.000-07:00

It can grow to an incredible size and weigh up to 11oz. in a baby; 303lb. in an adult. It can have hair, teeth and other specialized tissues. It is a teratoma.

Derived from the Greek words, terato, meaning monster, and oma, meaning tumor, a teratoma is a rare, complex tumor composed of a number of different types of tissue, none of which is native to the area in which it occurs. Nervous tissue, skin, bone, cartilage, pancreatic tissue, and even mature organs have all been observed within teratomas.

The components of a teratoma tend to be arranged in haphazard manner with differences in the degree of maturation of the involved tissue types. The solid or semisolid components, which are often encapsulated, grow independently of the body and can interfere with normal bodily function and destroy adjacent tissue.

Teratomas are most often present at birth. Often detected by ultrasound, neonatal teratomas have been known to arise in the sacrococcygeal region (located between the hipbones), testes and ovaries. Other reported sites include the head, neck, eye sockets and nasopharyngeal region, the cervix, and even the tongue.

The primary treatment of teratomas is surgery. Left untreated, they can be fatal. Fortunately, recurrence after complete removal is uncommon.

The cause of these tumors is unclear. They are not believed to be inherited in a typical Mendelian fashion. Teratomas may arise from displaced primordial reproductive cells, embryonic cells, precursor cells or stem cells that have escaped the control of organizers and inducers. Due to the diversity of tissues and structures formed within the teratoma, it has even been postulated that a teratoma is actually a maldeveloped embryo, growing on its conjoined twin.

A Teratoma: An ovarian cyst with a solid mass of sebaceous material, blood and hair.

Sources

Guinness World Records 2001by Tim Footman (Editor), Guinness Media (Editor)

You Thorny Devil

2001-04-13T13:54:00.000-07:00

Also known as Moloch horridus, the Thorny Devil is a small (8 inch long), spiny, Australian lizard that has a most unusual way of obtaining drinking water. These lizards actually drink water from the dew that accumulates on their backs.

Thorny devils have a hygroscopic (water-absorbing) system of grooves incorporated into their skin. These groves lead water to the corners of the lizard's mouth by means of capillary action, initiated and maintained by gulping.

Australian deserts become very cold at night and when dew forms on the lizard's skin, thousands of tiny grooves allow the dew to accumulate and reach the Thorny Devil's mouth.

Thorny Devils are even capable of standing in a moist area and absorbing the moisture simply with the tiny grooves on the skin of their feet, only to be carried into their mouths. This remarkable adaptation can be easily seen in real time with the naked eye.

Thorny Devils are usually heavily parasitized, with almost all individuals having many types of nematode worms in their intestinal tracts. In fact, a new species of tapeworm, Oochoristica piankai, was recently discovered in the small intestines of this creature.

Thorny Devils eat one type of ant almost exclusively. Eaten one at a time, a large numbers of ants (estimated at 2000 ants) are consumed per meal by an individual lizard.

Despite its name, the Thorny Devil is slow-moving and harmless. In fact, when frightened, it tucks its thorny head between its front legs. This is unlike the distantly-related North American, Regal Horned Lizard which, on occasion, when provoked, puffs itself up with air and squirts blood, as far as a few feet, from a reserve behind its eyes.

Candiru: Up Yours!

2001-04-06T12:46:00.000-07:00

Urban legends about the exotic behaviors of certain creatures abound - regarding everything from spiders laying their eggs in people, to crocodiles living in the sewers of New York. However, there is one species of parasitic catfish, indigenous to the Amazon, that exhibits behavior right out of a fairy tale - albeit of the nightmarish sort. Vandellia cirrhosa usually feed by attaching themselves to the gill flaps of other fish, eating bits of tissue and sucking blood. These little creatures are most notorious, however, for attacking people who urinate in the water.

More commonly known as Candiru, or carnero in Spanish-speaking countries, this small, inch long, eel-like catfish has been known to follow a trail of urine like a homing beacon. Upon meeting the source, it rams itself into the victim's urethra, vagina or anus and sinks its teeth and short spiny gill covers into the surrounding tissue, making it almost impossible to dislodge. Once inside, it tears away the mucous membrane and tissues, likely in an effort to continue to breath or to escape. Extreme pain is an obvious consequence of its attack- followed by inflammation, hemorrhage, and possibly death.

Although the fish invariably dies, the presence of its corpse, and the associated localized swelling, causes the urethra to become blocked. It has been reported that the folk-remedy of inserting the juice of either the Xaqua plant or the Buitach apple into the urethra will both kill the fish and actually dissolve it. Alternatively, native Amazon residents report that drinking tea made from the green fruit of the Jagua tree can also dissolve the fish. However, removal of the dead fish may require surgery. In certain extreme cases, amputation of the penis (penectomy) may be the only recourse.

Sources

Parasite Rex: Inside the Bizarre World of Nature's Most Dangerous Creatures.by Carl Zimmer (2000)

Radiation: It Does A Body Good?

2001-03-31T13:55:00.000-08:00

The negative biological effects of ionizing radiation have been extensively researched and include immune suppression, cancer, sterility and heritable genetic damage. Although radiation has been used effectively in the treatment of many illnesses, including cancer, the beneficial effects are based on the killing action of radiation on the diseased cells.

A paradoxical phenomena, the term hormesis (Greek meaning to excite) can be used to describe the beneficial effect of a toxic substance at nontoxic levels. Many such chemical toxins; such as arsenic, copper, or selenium, are known to play minor but significant beneficial roles in metabolism, at low concentrations. Interestingly, there is evidence to suggest radiation hormesis; that is; under certain circumstances, radiation has been observed to be good for our health.

Although data concerning radiation hormesis are incomplete, epidemiological studies indicate that radiation hormesis does exist. In fact, contrary to popular belief, whole body exposure to low-dose ionizing radiation appears to decrease overall cancer incidence.

A 1994 study reported atomic bomb survivors from Hiroshima and Nagasaki who received low doses of radiation experienced no increase in the number of total cancer deaths. Furthermore, mortality caused by leukemia was even lower in this population at half the radiation dose than the age-matched control cohorts. In general, atomic bomb survivors from Hiroshima and Nagasaki, who received low doses of radiation, are living longer and are experiencing fewer cancers than those who were not exposed.

Radon is a notorious, naturally occurring radioactive gas that arises from the soil and seeps into homes, collecting in high concentrations, where poorly ventilated. Although exposure to high concentrations of radon can increase the risk of developing lung cancer, some studies have concluded that too little radon exposure from our own homes may actually lead to an increased risk of various cancers.

There is even evidence for decreased cancer mortality in nuclear workers. In fact, in one Canadian survey, mortality due to cancer in nuclear power plant workers was found to be 58% lower than the national average.It has been suggested that there may indeed be an optimal daily requirement of radiation exposure that acts as a necessary "nutrient". Experiments involving radiation-deficient invertebrates suggest that ionizing radiation is essential for optimal growth and development.

Three possible mechanisms may explain radiation hormesis. Whole body exposure to low-dose ionizing radiation may:

induce the production of special proteins that inhibit DNA synthesis, thereby allowing time for the cell to repair its DNA before replicating.
produce beneficial free radical scavengers (which act like antioxidants by preventing damage by free radicals).
stimulate the immune system.

Perhaps the old adage holds true; everything in moderation.

Suggested Readings:

RADIATION HORMESIS: Biopositive Effect of Radiationsby T.D. Luckey (2000)University of Missouri, Columbia

Risks and Benefits of Ionizing Radiation by The Michener Institute (1999)

Re-Growing Your Liver

2001-03-16T13:12:00.000-08:00

The liver has an extraordinary capacity for regeneration. This hardy organ is the only human organ capable of regenerating itself, even after 40% of its weight has been removed (as a result of surgery or damage).

In rats, the liver can regenerate a loss of 75% of its weight in one month. Although the rate of re-growth is slower in humans, the regeneration continues until the original mass of the liver is restored.

If there is continuous or repeated damage to this organ, however, connective tissue is abundantly produced. The excess of connective tissue (full of collagen) results in disorganization of the liver's structure (a condition known as cirrhosis). Liver function is impaired in this condition, because this type of scar tissue not only replaces functional liver cells but also disorganizes related duct and vascular systems.

Cirrhosis of the liver is one of the leading causes of death in Western countries. Cirrhosis can be caused parasites, viruses, drugs and other chemicals including and alcohol.

Liver regeneration was first described in the Greek myth of Prometheus. Having stolen the secret of fire from the Gods, Prometheus was condemned by Zeus to having a portion of his liver eaten daily by an eagle. His liver regenerated overnight, thus providing the eagle with eternal food and Prometheus with eternal torture.

Sources

The Body Book: The Fantastic Voyage to the World Within by D. Bodanis

Sugar: The Real Brain Food

2001-03-09T13:14:00.000-08:00

Sugar has been described as "empty calories"; the implication being that it provides nothing but energy. Indeed, sugars (also known as saccharides) have none of the other components we need for a balanced diet, which includes proteins, vitamins and minerals. However, unlike other bodily systems, sugar itself is exclusively required by our central nervous system for proper functioning. If one's body lacks sugar, brain damage, coma or death can occur.

Basic survival requires us to take in about a 1000 Calories of energy every day, which we can get from about 280 grams of sugar. Our specific daily glucose needs are approximately 160g of glucose, of which 120g are required by our brain alone.

Fortunately, our bodies have an alternative mechanism for ensuring sugar availability. This occurs via a process known as gluconeogenesis, in which proteins are broken down into amino acids and are converted into sugar.

Sugar, which is the simplest group of carbohydrates, can also be used for manufacturing purposes. For example, the notorious synthetic fat substitute, Olestra is made primarily of sugar and oil. Other companies use sugar to make alcohol, detergents, pesticides and even anti-cancer agents.

Perhaps the most environmentally friendly product made from sugar is the biodegradable plastic polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB). The German hair care company, Wella, sells its brand of shampoo in bottles made of PHB. Also known as Biopol, the plastic actually makes an ideal food for various microorganisms, which degrade it to water and carbon dioxide.

Ironically, one of the most bitter compounds known, sucrose octa-acetate, is made from sugar. This compound is used to give a substance a nasty taste, thereby acting as a deterrent for those who would otherwise ingest it. The compound is often a component of topical solutions, which are applied to pet wounds to prevent the animal from irritating it.

Suggested Readings

The Good Chemical Guide by J. Emsley (1994)

The Pearl of Namibia

2001-03-02T13:16:00.000-08:00

Cheese mites were long considered to be the smallest creatures until the 1675 discovery of "animalcules" or microbes, by the great microbiologist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. Indeed, the delay in the discovery is partially due to the fact that most bacteria are microscopic, hence the word microbe. However, there is one type of bacteria that is easily visible with the naked eye. In fact, the bacterium is about the size of a fly's eye.

Discovered in 1997 in the ocean sediment off the coast of Namibia, Africa, Thiomargarita namibiensis (Latin meaning sulfur pearl of Namibia) ranges from approximately 0.10 to 0.75mm in diameter. The microbe is so large that it is practically immobile.

A nitrate rich fluid-filled sac, or vacuole, which accounts for 98 percent of the bacterium's volume, is responsible for its enormous size. The nitrates in this sac serve as its oxygen, while hydrogen sulfide¾ a toxic gas produced by other bacteria in the sediment¾ is its food.
T. namibiensis is pearlescent blue-green and lives in groups which often line up in chains of a dozen, thereby appearing like a pearl necklace. Groups of T. namibiensis can have a very high biomass of up to 47g per square meter.

Interestingly, T. namibiensis is so large that it often harbors its own bacterial population. Smaller bacteria actually colonize the mucus that envelops the microbe.

Suggested Readings

Microbe Hunters by Paul De Kruif

Burning Bush

2001-02-23T13:17:00.000-08:00

Dictamnus albus (also known as Dittany, Fraxinella or Gas Plant) is a plant of great biblical significance. Referred to as the Burning Bush, it is has been speculated that it is the same plant described in the Book of Exodus in which God spoke to Moses on Mount Sinai from a bush that burned yet was not consumed by the fire.

The name "Burning Bush" actually refers to a group of several plants recognized for their striking fall foliage and brilliant flower display. Most interesting is the fact that these plants emit lemon-peel scented, volatile, flammable vapors, via secretory glands located mainly in their leaves and flowers. In still, warm conditions, so much oil evaporates from this plant that even tumbling stones can supply a spark that can easily ignite these plants. Fortunately, the ensuing fire is very brief and the plant is not damaged.

Oddly, the flammable oils also serve to protect the plant. Under cool, dry, cloudy conditions the oil congeals into a resinous wax, preventing water evaporation.

Although Dictamus albus is the only species in its genus indigenous to the Mediterranean & temperate Asia, the perennial herb is frequently cultivated in gardens as an ornamental shrub. An extra word of caution though: the oils secreted from the plant can cause a nasty skin rash, similar to poison ivy.

The World's Toughest Organism

2001-02-16T19:54:00.000-08:00

Labeled "The World’s Toughest Organism" by The Guinness Book of World Records, Deinococcus radiodurans (Latin, meaning strange berry that withstands radiation) tolerates doses of radiation so strong it cracks glass.

A dose of 500 to 1000 "rads" of radiation is lethal to the average person. In contrast, depending upon the conditions, D. radiodurans can live after exposures of up to 1.5 million rads - approximately 3000 times the dose that would normally kill all known organisms, from microbe to man. Cool or freeze the microbe and it might survive up to 3 million rads.

Pinkish and giving off the smell of rotten cabbages, the bacteria was discovered in 1956 in a can of ground beef that had been radiation sterilized but had spoiled nonetheless. Since then, the bacterium has been found in elephant and llama feces, irradiated haddock and duck meat, and embedded in granite from Antarctica’s Dry Valleys, a place thought to resemble the surface of Mars.

D. radiodurans has been under investigation by federal scientists ever since the United States dropped atomic bombs on Japan in World War II. The bacteria's resistance to radiation is due to its unprecedented ability to repair genetic damage. When it is hit with millions of rads, the bacterium’s DNA literally shatters into hundreds of fragments. Within a few hours, D. radiodurans begins to stitch its DNA back together, and it eventually reconstructs a genome free of mutations.

A contributing factor to the bacterium's radiation resistance is that each cell contains multiple copies of its genome. Although this in itself is not unique, the bacterium does seem to have the capacity to use the redundant genetic information in a way that most organisms cannot, thereby increasing the odds that a mutated gene will be corrected.

D. radiodurans is as resistant to complete dehydration and excessive heat as it is to radiation. Consequently, it has been suggested that radiation immunity is only an incidental side effect of the microbe's ability to survive periods of severe dehydration or excessive heat, both of which fragment DNA in a similar manner.

Cleanup of toxic sites created by improper disposal of nuclear wastes presents a massive global challenge requiring innovative approaches. Many contain a dangerous mix of organic pollutants (such as trichloroethy-lene (TCE) and toluene), radioactive elements (such as uranium and plutonium), and an array of heavy metals. Many of the waste sites are comprised of storage tanks and concrete-lined pits, which now are disintegrating and leaking. Cleanup estimates run as high as $300 billion. Bioremediation - a cleanup method using specialized microorganisms - may be a cheaper and more efficient alternative.

D. radiodurans is being customized to attack the heavy metals, radioactive wastes and other substances that pollute the soil and groundwater at nuclear waste sites. One modified version of the bacteria can partially metabolize the organic contaminant toluene, even while subjected to constant irradiation of 6,000 rads per hour. Although no known bacterium can actually neutralize radioactivity or metabolize metals such as uranium into harmless substances, some microbes do have the ability to immobilize metals with which they come in contact. Equipping D. radiodurans with such genes could help stop the spread of radioactive elements until cleanup strategies are available.

Recently, genes from a strain of E. coli bacteria, resistant to particularly toxic forms of mercury, were used to modify D. radiodurans, enabling the bacteria to transform toxic mercury compounds (commonly found at nuclear weapons production sites) into less harmful forms.

Suggested Readings

Radiation Resistant "Superbug" May Be Used in Cleanup of Radioactive Contaminantsby James R. Weber U.S. Department of Energy

Guinness Book of World Records (1998)

The World's Toughest Organism

2001-02-16T13:19:00.000-08:00

Labeled "The World’s Toughest Organism" by The Guinness Book of World Records, Deinococcus radiodurans (Latin, meaning strange berry that withstands radiation) tolerates doses of radiation so strong it cracks glass.

A dose of 500 to 1000 "rads" of radiation is lethal to the average person. In contrast, depending upon the conditions, D. radiodurans can live after exposures of up to 1.5 million rads - approximately 3000 times the dose that would normally kill all known organisms, from microbe to man. Cool or freeze the microbe and it might survive up to 3 million rads.

Pinkish and giving off the smell of rotten cabbages, the bacteria was discovered in 1956 in a can
of ground beef that had been radiation sterilized but had spoiled nonetheless. Since then, the bacterium has been found in elephant and llama feces, irradiated haddock and duck meat, and embedded in granite from Antarctica’s Dry Valleys, a place thought to resemble the surface of Mars.

D. radiodurans has been under investigation by federal scientists ever since the United States dropped atomic bombs on Japan in World War II. The bacteria's resistance to radiation is due to its unprecedented ability to repair genetic damage. When it is hit with millions of rads, the bacterium’s DNA literally shatters into hundreds of fragments. Within a few hours, D. radiodurans begins to stitch its DNA back together, and it eventually reconstructs a genome free of mutations.

A contributing factor to the bacterium's radiation resistance is that each cell contains multiple copies of its genome. Although this in itself is not unique, the bacterium does seem to have the capacity to use the redundant genetic information in a way that most organisms cannot, thereby increasing the odds that a mutated gene will be corrected.

D. radiodurans is as resistant to complete dehydration and excessive heat as it is to radiation. Consequently, it has been suggested that radiation immunity is only an incidental side effect of the microbe's ability to survive periods of severe dehydration or excessive heat, both of which fragment DNA in a similar manner.

Cleanup of toxic sites created by improper disposal of nuclear wastes presents a massive global challenge requiring innovative approaches. Many contain a dangerous mix of organic pollutants (such as trichloroethy-lene (TCE) and toluene), radioactive elements (such as uranium and plutonium), and an array of heavy metals. Many of the waste sites are comprised of storage tanks and concrete-lined pits, which now are disintegrating and leaking. Cleanup estimates run as high as $300 billion. Bioremediation - a cleanup method using specialized microorganisms - may be a cheaper and more efficient alternative.

D. radiodurans is being customized to attack the heavy metals, radioactive wastes and other substances that pollute the soil and groundwater at nuclear waste sites. One modified version of the bacteria can partially metabolize the organic contaminant toluene, even while subjected to constant irradiation of 6,000 rads per hour. Although no known bacterium can actually neutralize radioactivity or metabolize metals such as uranium into harmless substances, some microbes do have the ability to immobilize metals with which they come in contact. Equipping D. radiodurans with such genes could help stop the spread of radioactive elements until cleanup strategies are available.

Recently, genes from a strain of E. coli bacteria, resistant to particularly toxic forms of mercury, were used to modify D. radiodurans, enabling the bacteria to transform toxic mercury compounds (commonly found at nuclear weapons production sites) into less harmful forms.

Poisonous Breath, Literally

2001-02-09T19:52:00.000-08:00

As most of us are aware, bacteria are responsible for bad breath. They create several offensive-smelling molecules, some of which are actually lethal in large quantities. It is mainly the sulfur compounds that impart the foul mouth odor clinically known as halitosis.

Hydrogen sulfide, an extremely toxic gas, is a major component of bad breath. It is this gas that is responsible for the oft-described odor of "rotten eggs" and is also a major contributor of the vile odor of gaseous gangrene. Although hydrogen sulfide is easily detected by our noses at low concentrations, large quantities this gas can actually cause serious eye injuries, olfactory paralysis and imminent death. This toxic gas, a major health hazard, is produced by industrial processes such as sulfur mining, petroleum refinery, and sewage treatment.

In fact, the first reported American death due to hydrogen sulfide occurred in 1851 - not in a mine or a city sewer, but in an outhouse.

Dimethyl sulfide, once used much like mustard gas as a weapon of war, is also present in foul breath. Merely an olfactory irritant at low concentrations, in large quantities this gas can cause severe inflammation and necrosis (localized tissue death) of the eyes, the mouth and the respiratory tract, leading to severe and fatal pulmonary damage. In addition, the gas can cause convulsions, delirium, paralysis, coma, and delayed damage to the kidneys, liver and heart with ensuing death in severe cases.

The main culprit of bad breath is methyl mercaptan. This compound, which smells like rotten cabbage, is formed when bacteria breakdown various sulfur-rich proteins of our own bodies. This gas is also responsible for the distinctive odor of urine after asparagus has been consumed. We can easily detect this compound at extremely low levels, but unfortunately and interestingly enough, we cannot smell the gas we produce ourselves. Methyl mercaptan is involved in the manufacture of jet fuels, pesticides, fungicides, plastics and in the synthesis of the amino acid methionine which is often used as a food supplement. Methyl mercaptan exhibits a toxicity similar to, but less than that of hydrogen sulfide. Oddly, it has been reported that the gas may be a narcotic in high concentrations. Common advice to those who suspect that they exhale methyl mercaptan is to use a toothpaste that contains anit-plaque agents, such as zinc or tin salts. These metals interfere with the enzymes in the bacteria that produce methyl mercaptan.

The strong smell of these gases often indicates gum disease such as pyorrhea, or gingivitis (also known as trench mouth). Other mouth odors can also be diagnostic for other illnesses. For example, colds and sinus infections bring on malodor; tooth cavities, periodontal disease and tonsillitis generate a fetid smell and even a bad taste; liver failure causes "fetor hepaticus", a mousy breath; kidney disease makes breath smell like urine and a lung abscess turns it putrid. Ironically, gastrointestinal disorders are almost never the cause bad breath.

Suggested Readings

Molecules at an Exhibition
by John Emsley (1998)

A Field Guide to the Invisible
by W. Biddle (1998)

Alien Estrogens

2001-02-02T19:50:00.000-08:00

Evidence suggests we live in a very different world to that of our forebears. We are touching, eating, drinking, breathing and bathing in trace quantities of chemicals that can weakly mimic or block the action of our hormones - many of which did not even exist a hundred years ago.

Collectively known as endocrine or hormone disrupters, xenoestrogens (the prefix derived from the Greek word xeno meaning alien) is a group of estrogen mimicking or blocking chemicals. Most xenoestrogens, such as DDT, some PCBs and certain dioxins, are well known. Others are not.

Biphenolic compounds, for example, are used in "epoxy-based" plastics, which line the inside of food cans, bottle tops, drink containers and water pipes. In fact, many metal tins have an often scarcely visible biphenolic compound lining which are used to prevent metals contaminating the food or altering the taste. Even polycarbonate (a polymer of biphenolic A) is used to make many baby bottles and other reusable food containers. The potential leaching of this xenoestrogen into its surrounding is the obvious health concern.

Another group of chemicals, arguably the most abundant man-made chemicals in the environment, is the phthalates. These suspected xenoestrogens (specifically bis-2-ethylhexyl-phthalate, or DEHP) can be found leaching from plastics, polyvinyl chloride, aluminum foil, and the printing inks on food cartons and packets. This plasticizer is also used in baby pacifiers and teething rings.

Many xenoestrogens are lipophilic (fat-loving) and accumulate in the fat of our bodies. This mechanism may be considered a kind of protective mechanism, keeping the chemicals away from critical targets such as the nervous system. However, some of these stored chemicals are mobilized during lactation and are passed on to the infant via the breast milk.

Fortunately, most xenoestrogens are very week - approximately 1000x less active than some plant estrogens, also known as phytoestrogens, which are normally found in our food. However, the combined affects of xenoestrogens could be great. In fact, some of these substances interact in ways that increase the potency of the individual chemicals. Members of the scientific community have suggested that certain hormone disrupters may play a role in the increased incidence of breast cancer, a worldwide decrease in sperm counts, and neurodevelopmental deficits in children.

In 1996, the U.S. Congress amended two laws to require the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to determine which chemicals might be endocrine disrupters. The agency then formed the Endocrine Disruptor Screening and Testing Advisory Committee (EDSTAC) which is currently completing a comprehensive evaluation of approximately 87,000 chemicals for their potential to disrupt hormones in humans and wildlife. EDSTAC's plan, however, only examines effects on estrogen, androgen, and thyroid hormones, although endocrine disrupters can upset other hormones' actions.

Suggested Readings

Feminization of Nature: Our Future at Risk
by Deborah Cadbury (1998)

Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program Web Site

Introduction to Hormone Disrupting Chemicals
by Dr. A. Michael Warhurst

Environmental Estorgens and Other Hormones
Cener for Bioenvionmental Research at Tulane and Xavier University, 2000.

Polyclads: Dueling Penises

2001-01-26T19:49:00.000-08:00

Polyclads are free-living, flamboyantly colored, hermaphroditic marine flatworms with a penchant for crude acts of copulation.

In an effort to mutually cross-fertilize, a couple will rear up, exposing their stubby penises, and literally duel in bouts that can last 20 minutes to an hour. Each animal attempts to stab its penis into an exposed area of its sex partner's body while avoiding getting jabbed itself.

Upon successful penetration, the victor remains with its penis embedded in the flesh of the sperm recipient for several minutes. During that time, sperm is injected into whichever random region of the victim's body the assailant has been lucky enough to penetrate, in an act known as "hypodermal insemination". The sperm proceed through the recipient's body tissue, creating a jagged internal path on their way to fertilizing eggs in the ovaries. A victim worm can actually lose up to two-thirds its body mass in this manner. Making matters even worse, some Polyclad species have two penises, thereby doubling their dueling and penetrating pleasure. Fortunately, the "wounded" - i.e. impregnated - flatworm is usually able to heal within 24 hours.

Polyclad flatworms are mainly found among coral reefs. Most are carnivores, feeding on various invertebrates, while others are herbivores with a diet consisting primarily of algae. Although Polyclads are not related to mollusks they are often mistaken for sea slugs because of their brilliant color patterns.

Hundreds of Polyclad species are believed to occur in tropical waters, but only a small fraction have actually been classified. Marine explores beware: Polyclads have the ability to self-destruct under stress. They "autolyse"; breaking down into numerous fragments, or contract and contort, making further examination impossible. Furthermore, they lose their distinct color pattern.

Don't be deceived though. Despite being extremely delicate, Polyclads are deadly. These animals contain strong neurotoxins, such as tetrodotoxin, a substance for which the deadly Puffer fish is notorious.

Suggested Readings

Mighty Hermaphroditey
Discover, 06/01/98

Sex and Violence in Hermaphrodites
by N.K. Michiels and L.J. Newman
Nature Vol. 391:647 (1998)

An Introduction to the Biology of Polyclad Flatworms &
The Marine Flatworms Galleries
by Wolfgang Seirfarth

Monitoring Lizards

2001-01-20T14:56:00.000-08:00

Many animals produce poisonous toxins. The Rattlesnake, the Puffer fish and the Gila Monster are classic examples of species that emit poisonous toxins that can be fatal to other animals. The Komodo Dragon, a member of the monitor lizard family, is also poisonous; not due to a toxin it manufactures itself, but because it plays host to a septic bacteria that lives in its mouth.
The Komodo's teeth and gums harbor bits of meat, torn from either fresh prey or carrion. This protein-rich residue supports large numbers of bacteria, which are currently under investigation. Some 50 different bacterial strains, of which at least seven are highly septic, have been found in their saliva.

Komodos are ferocious beasts, capable of knocking the quarry to the ground via a "coup de grace" attack to the underbelly. Their strong muscles drive powerful claws and their large, curved and serrated teeth tear flesh with the efficiency of a steak knife through warm butter. In the event of escape, infection and ultimately death occurs within days of a Komodo bite.
Interestingly, Dragons wounded in battle against other Komodos appear to be unaffected by these otherwise deadly bacteria. Antibodies within the Komodo's blood, which may impart immunity to the bacteria, are currently being studied.

Komodos are efficient eaters, forsaking only about 12 percent of the prey. In addition to bones, hooves, swaths of hide, and when available, smaller Komodos, they'll eat intestines. They prepare the offal for the feast by swinging them vigorously to scatter the feces contained inside.

An adult can consume up to 80 percent of its body weight in a single meal.
Komodo Dragons are the largest living lizards on the planet. They can reach lengths of up to 3.13 meters and weigh as much as 166 kilograms; they can run briefly at speeds of up to 20 kilometers per hour, swim and see objects as far away as 300 meters.

The Komodo has two highly developed sensory organs – the olefactory and the Jacobson’s (located in the roof of the mouth), which by tasting the air with their tongue, allows the Komodo to ascertain location of prey and to detect rotting carcasses from distances as great as 10 kilometers.

Sexing Komodos remains a challenge to Herpetologist. Only one subtle clue has been found to allow sex differentiation: a minute difference in the arrangement of scales just in front of the cloaca, the cavity housing the genitalia in both sexes.

The Komodo is classified as a "vulnerable" species, according to the World Conservation Union; it is also protected under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. It is estimated that 7500 Komodo Dragons exist in the world today; found almost exclusively on the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia.

Ethylene Glycol: Don't Eat Yellow Snow

2001-01-18T19:47:00.000-08:00

Ethylene glycol (1,2-ethanediol) commonly known as antifreeze, is a colorless, odorless, oily liquid that is responsible for a numerous K-9 deaths every year.

Indeed, most veterinarians are familiar with the signs of toxicity from this substance. A common incidence of ethylene glycol poisoning occurs when a dog comes in contact with radiator fluid. The fluid, to which a dye has been added to allow its detection, often appears yellow-green on snow. On occasion, a dog will sniff to investigate, and enjoy the sweet taste. Once the molecule is metabolized, the victim experiences respiratory and cardiovascular collapse or kidney failure, causing death.

Each year, about 6,000 Americans are poisoned by ethylene glycol, often referred to as the "sweet killer". The lethal dose in humans is approximately 100mL. Initial symptoms parallel alcohol intoxication with vomiting, headache, collapse, unconsciousness and convulsions. Intoxication is actually caused by the metabolites of ethylene glycol, which explains the delay between ingestion of the poison and the onset of symptoms, which can be up to 72 hours.

Surprisingly, the most common treatment for ethylene glycol poisoning is ingestion of pure alcohol. Ethylene glycol is degraded by the same enzymes as alcohol (alcohol dehydrogenases). The alcohol molecules actually compete for these enzymes' attention, thereby slowing the conversion of ethylene glycol to its toxic products. Consequently, doctors often administer pure alcohol to the victim as treatment.

The 1985 wine scandal was based on the discovery that some desert wine producers were adding diethylene glycol, a substance similar to ethylene glycol, to "sweeten up" their wines. Because this substance's toxicity to humans is nearly identical to that of ethylene glycol, the practice resulted in numerous deaths, causing the downfall of the Austrian wine market, which is only now beginning to show signs of recovery.

Suggested Readings

Ethylene Glycol
Material Safety Data Sheet

Ethylene Glycol
EPA - Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.)

Ethylene Glycol
The Emergency Medicine and Primary Care Home Page

The Price of Ecstasy + Applicable Taxes

2001-01-12T19:46:00.000-08:00

Ecstasy, the synthetic, non-hallucinogenic, psychoactive drug so popular in the rave scene today, was first synthesized in 1912.

Formally known as 3,4-methylenedioxmethamphetamine, or MDMA, it was patented in 1914 as a promising intermediary substance for the future development of therapeutic drugs. In the late 1960s, it was rediscovered by a group of psychologists who used it therapeutically. According to its proponents, MDMA can help people trust each other and thus, break down barriers between lovers, family members, and therapists and patients. By the early '80s, Ecstasy was sold legally in night clubs, with the appropriate taxes applied.

In 1985, the DEA used its discretionary power to outlaw MDMA on the basis of preliminary data on its potential adverse affects, as well as its chemical similarity to two other amphetamine analogs, MDA and methamphetamine, which are known to cause brain damage. A group of therapists who supported the therapeutic use of the drug sued, but after a three-year court battle the DEA won the right to ban the drug permanently.

Ecstasy works by changing the levels of specific neurotransmitters in the brain. The molecule acts on the nerve cells at the base of the brain, triggering release of dopamine (which makes us feel good); noradrenaline (which makes us energetic), and serotonin (which affects mood and body temperature). Ecstasy also inhibits the normal process of serotonin re-adsorption, prolonging its effects (a mechanism employed by modern antidepressants, including Prozac). All-night ravers, report nothing worse than a mild hangover the following day. In fact, E's popularity is largely due to its lack of noticeable downsides and the fact that it is not addictive.

But it's not completely benign. Ecstasy can damage the neuron cell extensions, called axons, which link these cells to other parts of the brain. Fortunately, axons can re-grow. The danger, however, is that re-growth may be abnormal. Although a rare event, the drug can also raise body temperature, which in a rave environment, can result in dehydration and blood coagulation leading to organ failure - giving a whole new meaning to the phrase "burning up the dance floor".

DanceSafe, a prorave organization dedicated in part to testing the purity of Ecstasy, found that as much as 20% of the Ecstasy sold contains something other than MDMA and that 40% contains no MDMA at all. Recent reports indicate that potentially harmful substances such as cough suppressants, various types of amphetamines and LSD are often included with or substituted for Ecstasy.

Suggested Readings

Ecstasy
by the National Institue on Drug Abuse - U.S. Department of Health and Huamh Services - NIH

The Effects of methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy") on monoaminergic neurotransmission in the central nervous system.
by S.R. White, T. Obradovic, K.M., Imel, M.J., Wheaton
Prog. Neurobiol. 1996 Aug;49(5):455-79
Abstract

The Lure of Ecstasy
by John Cloud
Time Magazine June 5, 2000

Molecules at an Exhibition
by John Emsley (1998)

Inheritance of a Beast of Burden

2001-01-06T13:50:00.000-08:00

As most know, a mule is a hybrid that results from crossing a horse with a donkey. However, true mules are only the product when a female horse (a mare) is crossed with a male donkey (a jackass or a jack). While a mule can be as tall as its mother, it has the ears, legs, hooves, tail, and stubbly mane of the donkey father. The strength passed down by the male, combined with the size of the female, results in an ideal beast of burden.

In contrast, crosses between a female ass (a jenny) and a male horse (a stallion) result in a less desirable creature; a hinny (or hinney), which is smaller than a mule. Hinnies greatly resemble their equine fathers and less their donkey mother. While mule breeders have known about it for a long time, this relatively newly described, and atypical, mode of inheritance defies the laws of traditional genetics. "Genomic Imprinting", as it's called, occurs when certain genes behave (express themselves) very differently depending on whether the mother or the father passed them down.

Normally, as traditional genetic describes, traits are inherited equally from both parents. However, there are groups of genes, known as "imprinted genes", where only one parental copy is active and the other is rendered silent (via a chemical modification of the specific region in gene itself). Thus, traits that are determined by these genes are inherited from a single parent only. This mode of inheritance can be described as a parent of origin gene effect and defies the common, garden-variety genetic theory, which tells us that it really shouldn't matter whether father or mother gives us any particular gene.

Genomic imprinting has been implicated as a cause of a wide variety of human genetic disease including some cancers. Its discovery has provided dramatic insights into previously puzzling human diseases such as Prader-Willi, Angelman, and Beckwith-Wiedemann syndromes; genetic disorders resulting in dismorphic features and/or mental (cognitive) impairment. It has been proposed that the phenomena may also be responsible for a variety of other "normal" features such as social behavior.

Sources

A List of Articles on Genomic Imprinting

GeneImprint.com

Mules.com

Mighty Cheese

2001-01-05T19:38:00.001-08:00

Acarus (also known as Tyrophagus) is a group of mites best known for their culinary abilities.

In modern cheese production, where the cheese is sealed in plastic, mite infestation is an unmitigated disaster. There are, however, some cheeses for which the presence of mites is extremely desirable. In these cases, a culture of cheese mites is purposefully introduced.

Mite-enhanced cheeses are dusted with a grayish powder, consisting of enormous numbers of living and dead mites, moulted skins, and feces. The addition of this matter is said to give the cheese an incomparable savor. For example, the cheese mite introduced in Altenburger cheese imparts a characteristic "piquant" taste. A cheese called "boule de Lille", from France, also acquires some of its flavor from Acarus. The British cheese, Stilton, "a tangy, creamy cheese" also uses mites as an essential part of the maturing process. In fact, Stilton was the subject of a famous court case when an environmental health officer tried unsuccessfully to prosecute a supermarket for selling cheese "infested" with mites.

Mite-introduced cheese is considered by some to be "ripe" and particularly delectable to such an extent that in olden times these cheeses were spread on bread for breakfast. In the central highlands of France, the Auvergne, cheese mites are called the cheese-makers. The legend among the locals is that God sent them to earth to keep gourmets happy.

Suggested Readings

The History of Stilton Cheese
by Trevor Hickman

Cannibal Mites
by Mona Lisa Productions

Mites: Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour (2000)by D. E. Walter, H. C. Proctor

Mite Image Gallery - a dazzling array of numersous types of mites with information on each species.by D. E. Walter, H. C. Proctor

Mistletoe: Dung on a Twig?

2000-12-29T13:47:00.000-08:00

As most know, Mistletoe is a parasitic plant associated with the Christmas tradition.

The name Mistletoe comes from the ancient belief that the plant spontaneously sprung to life from bird droppings in the tops of trees. The word "mistel" is Anglo-Saxon for dung, and the word "tan" means twig. Thus, mistletoe could be translated to be "dung on a twig."
Mistletoe was once believed to have magic powers as well as medicinal properties. In fact, in some parts of Europe the midsummer gathering of mistletoe is still associated with the burning of bonfires, a remnant of sacrificial ceremonies performed by druids. In other parts of the world it was considered a peace plant. Those who were fighting stood under the mistletoe to resolve their conflict. Mistletoe was also used in ancient wedding ceremonies to confer fertility. The custom of kissing under the mistletoes is an action that once was believed to lead inevitably to marriage.

Botanists categorize mistletoes as hemiparasites. Although, Mistletoes do contain chlorophyll and can make some of their own food, most parasitize a variety of hosts, and some species even parasitize other mistletoes, which, in turn, are parasitic on a host. As with most parasitic plants, the Mistletoe uses an organ known as a haustorium that functions like a root. However, instead of growing into the soil, it penetrates the bark and obtains its water and nutrients from its host. This weakens the host plant and, in severe cases, can even kill it. They can even cause abnormal growths called "witches' brooms" that deform the branches and decrease the reproductive ability of the host. The natural death of the Mistloe is determined by the death of the hosts. The only effective control measure is complete removal of the parasite from the host.

The Mistletoes that grow on the New Zealand Ohau beech trees can reach nine feet in both length and width and can virtually envelop a tree. However, unlike their European and North American counterparts, they do not damage their hosts. When the mistletoe flowers mature, they drop from the plant to form red piles on the forest floor, "like confetti from a holiday party".

Soucres

Decking the Halls :The Folklore and Traditions of Christmas Plantsby Linda Allen

The Biology of Mistletoesby Donald Calder, Peter Bernhardt (Editor)

A Floral Twist of Fate (New Zealand Mistletoes) Natural History, Sept. 2000 by L. Sessions

Amoebas, Einstein and the "White Cliffs" of Dover

2000-12-22T13:45:00.000-08:00

Amoebas (also spelled amebas) are a diverse group of free-living protozoa (a collection of single celled, nucleated organisms). Although they are often regarded as the simplest of protozoans, because many resemble a blob of protoplasm with no apparent organized shape, many are actually very complex and the subject of intense research.

Although an amoeba has no nerves, it reacts to its surroundings. With its whole body it responds by moving toward or away from stimuli. It retreats from strong light, or from water that is too hot or too cold. If touched or shaken, it rolls into a ball. An amoeba may survive extremely unfavorable circumstances such as a dry spell by rolling into a ball, losing most of its water, and secreting a protective coat. Once the surroundings are again suitable, the coat opens and the amoeba comes out.

Even more interesting is the soil amoeba, Dictyostelium (also known as a slime mold), which is uniquely capable of becoming briefly multicellular, by grouping together (as many as 1,000,000 individuals) to form a mobile bullet-shaped slug, the size of a sand grain. After several hours, the slug's back end catches up with the tip and stretches upward to become a slender stalk. Perched atop the stalk is a globe, bulging with cellulose coated dormant spores. The touch-sensitive colony remains in this form until a drop of rainwater, a passing worm, or perhaps the foot of a bird, picks up the spores and takes them to a bacteria-rich place where they can emerge from their coats and start feeding. Understandably, even Einstein had a keen interest in this organisms.

There are two general categories of amoebas: the naked amoebas, which lack skeletal structures, and those that possess a skeleton or shell (such as the foraminiferans). Forminiferns' shells are relatively resistant to decay and hence readily become fossilized. In fact, the famous "White Cliffs" of Dover, England, are composed to a great extent of these fossilized amoeba shells.

Sources

The Dictyostelium Virtual Library by Northwestern University

The Slime Alternative:What the Behavior of Amoebas may tell Usby Carl Zimmer, Discover Magazine Sept. 1998

Life Cyclesby John Tyler Bonner

Biology of Microorganisms
by M. Madigan (1999)

Trading Dioxins for Sex

2000-12-15T13:44:00.000-08:00

Not all dioxins are man-made. These chemicals have been part of the environment since dinosaurs walked the earth. In fact, dioxins have been found in sediments in Japan that were laid down over 8000 years ago.
Dioxins are formed in a wide variety of ways. They are a natural by-product whenever something burns. They are also produced in the gas clouds of volcanic eruptions. Even certain plants, fungi (Penicillium) and microbes (red algae) create dioxins. The Lone Star tick (Amblyomma americanium) creates dioxins while producing a sex attractant.

As many are aware, the planetary burden of dioxins has risen in this century partly because of the increased combustion of all kinds of fuel (wood, coal) and partly because of the chemical industry. Dioxins are also by-products of many industrial and manufacturing processes. They are inadvertently produced as contaminants in the manufacturing of certain herbicides, PCBs, chlorinated benzenes and phenyls and are also produced by the pulp and paper industry and bleaching industry. Dioxins are even present in car exhaust, spent motor oils, and cigarette smoke.

The name "dioxin" is often used incorrectly in the news media for TCDD, an extremely toxic dioxin. A dioxin is simply a group of chemicals which have two benzene rings joined together through one or two oxygen atoms. Although many dioxins are non-toxic, some are teratogens (agents known to cause birth defects) while others are carcinogens. Furthermore, dioxins are lipophilic (meaning fat-loving) and thus accumulate in animal fat (a process known as bioaccumulation).

Sources

9th Report on Carcinogens 2000 by U.S. Department of Health and Human Services National Toxicology Program
The Consumer's Good Chemical Guideby J. Emsley (1994)

The Feminization of Nature: Our Future at Risk
by Deborah Cadbury (1998)

Collagen: Keeping it Together

2000-12-08T13:43:00.001-08:00

Collagens are the most abundant proteins in your body, representing 30% of your body's "dry weight" - meaning without water content. The name is derived from the Greek words kolla, meaning glue, and gennan, meaning to produce. Collagen fibers are the glue that holds your body together. They are mainly found in your bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage and skin. The fibers are very flexible and have high tensile strength. In fact, collagen fibers are stronger than steel of the same diameter.

Most people have heard of collagen as it is used in cosmetic surgery. Earlier this summer the FDA approved the use of collagen derived from human cells. Normally a purified form of bovine collagen is used to provide fuller lips or smooth away wrinkles. But those improvements don't last: the material starts breaking down after a few months. Collagen loses its stability and actually unravels at the molecular level, which makes it susceptible to enzymes that cause it to degrade. Genetic abnormalities or the aging process can cause this unraveling to occur naturally. In fact, collagen breakdown is at the heart of many serious diseases, such as arthritis, rheumatism, brittle bones, lupus, cirrhosis and cataracts.

The formation of collagen is easily impaired. Vitamin C (chemically known as ascorbic acid) is required for the optimal function of a number of enzymes, some of which are involved in collagen production (namely proline and lysine hydroxylases). A deficiency in vitamin C results in the condition known as scurvy. The general symptoms of scurvy include hemorrhaging, decay of skin and flesh, bleeding gums, loss of teeth and eventually, death. Hence, without the "glue", your body falls apart.

Sources

Unconventional Collagens by M. Van Der Rest, B. Dublet, S. Ricard-Blum (2000)

Basic Histologyby L. C. Junqueira, J. Carneiro, R. O Kelley (1998)

A Mickey of DDT : Cocktails, Anyone?

2000-12-01T13:41:00.000-08:00

DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) was first synthesized in 1873 by a German scientist who apparently failed to realize the chemical's potential. It was rediscovered in the 1930s by Paul Hermann Muller, a Swiss Chemist who was trying to create the ideal insecticide. Indeed, DDT was capable of destroying insect nervous systems extremely quickly (in a few moments). Thus, the discovery and subsequent application of DDT was heralded as a breakthrough. In 1948, Paul Muller was awarded a Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine for discovering the potent toxic effects on insects of DDT.

Sources

Envirofacts Warehouse Chemical Referencesby United States Environmental Protection Agency

9th Report on Carcinogens 2000 by U.S. Department of Health and Human Services National Toxicology Program

Pandora's Box: Goodbye Mrs. Ant (Video)Produced by Adam Curtis, BBC 2, 2 July 1992

Molecules at an Exhibitionby John Emsley
by R. Goldsby, T. Kindt, B. Osborne, J. Kuby (1999)

The Feminization of Nature: Our Future at Risk
by Deborah Cadbury (1998)
DDT was in demand during W.W.II and was celebrated as the new war weapon of the Allies because of its ability to destroy killer pests. The chemical was effective against lice, fleas and mosquitoes: the carriers of typhus, plague, malaria and yellow fever. Solder's shirts were impregnated with it, blankets were dusted with it and in the 50's, children were sprayed with it. In fact, it was the most widely used insecticide for more than twenty years and was a major factor in increasing world food production and suppressing of insect-borne diseases. The insecticide was thought to be so safe that some enterprising drinkers invented the "Mickey Slim" a cocktail comprised of gin with a pinch of DDT - added to give the drink "a little

Hypersensitivity of Bruce Lee

2000-11-24T13:40:00.000-08:00

Bruce Lee (November 27, 1940 - DD) legendary actor, martial arts master and, incidentally, Hong Kong Cha-Cha Champion of 1958, died at the age of 32. Lee's highly controversial death was from a hypersensitivity reaction to a common prescription medication containing meprobamate (a mild sedative) and aspirin. The allergic reaction resulted in the severe swelling of his brain. In fact, the swelling was so extreme that Bruce's skull weighed 3.47 pounds against the normal 3.09 pounds. In the words of the coronary doctor, his brain was "swollen like a sponge".

Hypersensitivity (allergy) is a heightened or inappropriate immunological response to an allergen. Contrary to popular belief, drug allergies are not consequences of the pharmacological or physiological effects of drug allergens. The basic mechanism underlying many drug allergies is that most medical drugs are small molecules which are not capable of inducing an allergic (immune) response unless they are coupled to a larger molecule. When introduced into the body, these molecules react with other bodily molecules (usually proteins) to form drug-protein conjugates. It is this newly formed molecule that causes a drug allergy to medication such as penicillin, sulfa drugs and aspirin.

For more information about Bruce Lee: http://www.jkd.com/aboutbrucelee.htm

Sources

The Bruce Lee Story by Linda Lee Cadwell (1989)

Kuby Immunology by R. Goldsby, T. Kindt, B. Osborne, J. Kuby (2000)

Diets of Pseudomonas

2000-11-17T13:38:00.000-08:00

Pseudomonas (soo-do-mo-nas) is a large genus of bacteria, which, since its members are capable of synthesizing an unusually large number of enzymes, includes many species with rather unusual diets. Various species of the Pseudomonas family happily consume minute traces of unusual carbon sources, with some strains eating over 100 different compounds including insecticides, pesticides, herbicides, plastics, petroleum substances and hydrocarbons. P. aeruginosa can even eat liquid soap residues and capliner adhesives. P. testosteroni (a soil bacteria) uses testosterone as its sole carbon source. Ironically, they are usually unable to consume biopolymers such as cellulose.

Members of Pseudomonas are employed in bioremediation, a process whereby microorganisms are used to break-down chemical pollutants to non-toxic by-products. Two bioremediation technologies that are currently being used in the United States for oil spill cleanups are fertilization and seeding. Fertilization, also known as nutrient enrichment, is the method of adding nutrients to a contaminated environment to stimulate the growth of the microorganisms capable of biodegradation. Seeding is the addition of microorganisms to the existing native oil-degrading population. As with fertilization, the purpose of seeding is to increase the population of microorganisms that can biodegrade the spilled oil.

On the 24th of March 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil tanker ran aground in the Prince William Sound off Alaska, spilling 260,000 barrels of oil. It was the combined use of fertilization bioremediation and the unusual diets of various Pseudomonas species that aided in the clean up efforts.

For more images related to the Exxon Valdez: http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/photos/exxon/exxon.html

Sources

Biodegradation and Bioremediationby Martin Alexander (1999)

Cleaning Up:
The Exxon Valdez Case, from 3 Drinks to 5 Billion Dollarsby David Lebedoff (1997)

Biology of Microorganisms
by M. Madigan (1999)

Cholera: Une Peur Bleue!

2000-11-10T13:37:00.000-08:00

Cholera is a gastrointestinal disease caused by a toxin released by the infectious aquatic bacterium Vibrio cholerae. This disease manifests itself with a debilitating outflow of bodily salts (electrolytes) and fluids by the gallon. In addition to the violent diarrhea, vomiting and fever are experienced and ruptured capillaries (which result from the change in osmotic pressure) turn the skin black and blue (hence the French phrase for transfixing fear, "une peur bleue"). There is even a Yiddish blessing Kenne hora, which means No Cholera! The blessing is hardly a wonder since untreated cases have a 50% mortality rate.

Fortunately, however, the disease is relatively hard to catch. It requires millions bacteria present only in a grossly contaminated sources (often drinking water). Furthermore, general treatment of this disease is simple: restore electrolytes and fluids. In fact, in the relatively recent 1994 outbreak in Rwanda, ten thousand cases of the common sports drink, Gatorade, were shipped as treatment for the disease.

Aflatoxin: Nature is Not Benign

2000-11-03T13:34:00.000-08:00

Contrary to popular belief, carcinogens (cancer-causing substances) are not confined to man-made compounds but also occur naturally.
Aflatoxin B1, one of the most potent carcinogens known, is a naturally occurring mycotoxin (fungal toxin) produced by two types of molds: Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aspergillus flavus is widespread in nature and often grows on peanuts, almonds, corn, hay, coconuts, cereals and grains, when favorable conditions such as high humidity and temperature exit. It is for this reason that your mother told you not to eat bad peanuts. In fact, peanut butter is occasionally recalled due to the presence of excessive amounts of aflatoxin. This naturally occurring substance is so mutagenic (causing genetic mutation) that it is used in many laboratories to induce high levels of mutation for study. Apparently many regimes use this carcinogenic agent as part of their arsenal for biological warfare. For example, Iraq acknowledged that prior to the Persian Gulf conflict they stored 11 aflatoxin bombs.

Agricultural and food manufacturing practices in many countries strive to ensure that mycotoxins do not occur in food in amounts that are significant to human health. Often, food companies and processors have stringent quality-control limits that are sometimes more protective than government standards. Even the United Nations is considering adopting limits on various mycotoxins in foods for international trade.

Indeed, as the famous American biochemist, Bruce Ames, stated with respect to carcinogens, "Nature is not benign".

Sources

Aflatoxins: Occurrence and Health Risksby Cornell University

9th Report on Carcinogens 2000 by U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Toxicology Program

Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet : A Comparison of Naturally Occurring and Synthetic Substances by The National Research Council (1996)

Life Itself: Exploring the Realm of the Living Cell by Boyce Rensberger (1998)

Ascaris: You Scare Us

2000-10-27T18:23:00.000-07:00

Ascaris is the name of a family of parasitic roundworms. These animals, which can reach sizes of 30cm long and 1/2cm wide, live in the gut of an estimated 1 billion people worldwide. Each female produces approximately 200,000 hardy eggs per day which exit an infected body only to settle or be blown around by the wind, thereby infecting others. Although general symptoms of infection are usually not severe, certain types of adult Ascaris are equipped with cutting teeth and can penetrate tissue. If they pass through the gut lining they can populate the abdomen. Even worse, these worms have been known to leave the body of small children through the navel or nostril while they sleep. Now that's scary!

However, swallowing an Ascaris egg does not mean becoming a host to an adult. After finding itself in the small intestine, the baby worm migrates into the blood system and joyrides through our liver, heart and finally our lungs, only to be coughed up and, often re-swallowed. Fortunately, many of the wondering young worms get lost along the way, some are terminated by our immune system and others may even be ejected from our mouth. These creatures just make you want to spit!

For even more horrifying pictures of Ascaris: http://www.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~parasite/ascaris.htm
http://www.nejm.com/content/1994/0331/0005/0303.asp

Sources

Fearsome Fauna
by Roger M. Kuntson (1999)

Microbiology: An Introduction
by G. J. Tortora, B.R. Funke and C.L. Case (2000)

Face Mites: Constipation Can Kill

2000-10-20T08:21:00.000-07:00

Each person on the planet harbors his/her unique population of Demodex mites. More commonly known as face mites, Demodex mites are arachnids (relatives of spiders, horseshoe crabs, etc.) which are found on practically all mammals. These creatures reside in our pores, especially enjoying the lush foreheads of teenagers, and graze on skin, sebaceous secretions and bacteria, including the dreaded Propriabacterium acnes, a causative agent of acne. They even dine occasionally on acne cream and mascara.

Face mite infestation can lead to hair loss (particularly the eyelashes) and a variety of skin disorders. In fact, the great American comedian W.C. Fields, who was considered the stage prototype of a typical alcoholic, suffered from Acne Rosacea (rose-ay-shah). Field's distinctive big nose and red face arose from a skin condition related to the over-abundance of these creatures.

Although face mites have been viewed under microscopes since the 1900s (they are slightly smaller than the size of the period at the end of this sentence) it was not until 1977 that the anatomical omission of an anus was confirmed. Consequently, it is presumed that they die of terminal constipation at the average age of 18 days. Kaboom!

For even more pictures of Demodex: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artmay00/demodex.html

Sources

Journal of Cutanious Pathology, Demodex Mites in Acne Rosacea by T. Roihu and A. Kariniemi
1998 Nov;25(10):550-2 Abstract

Journal of Dermatology, The Significance of Demodex folliculorum Density in Rosacea
by Z. Erbagci and O. Ozgoztasi, 1998 Jun;37(6):421-5 Abstract

The Secret Family by David Bodanis (1999)

Furtive Fauna by Roger M. Kuntson (1996)

The Great Hippocrates?

2000-10-13T08:18:00.000-07:00

Hippocrates (460B.C. - 377B.C.) was a great Greek physician, according to Plato and Aristotle. Although he is often described as the father of medicine, nothing is known for certain about him. In fact, none of his works in the Hippocratic Corpus (a book containing a vague description of human anatomy) can be unreservedly ascribed to him. Not even the dates of his birth and death are certain facts.

It is said Hippocrates rejected the use of drugs and was an advocate of the healing power of nature, and recommended diet and moderate exercise as treatment for aliments. Furthermore, the Latin word for crab, Cancer, is believed to be derived from the word he coined (carcinoma - the Greek word for crab) based on the fact that the distended veins radiating from some breast tumors were similar to the limbs of crabs.

The reluctance to intervene in the course of a disease is reflected in the Hippocratic Oath that many medical schools still administer to their graduates.

Oddly enough, one thing is fairly certain about Hippocrates: he is not the source of the Hippocratic Oath.

Sources
Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionaryby W. A. Newman Dorland (Editor) (2000)

How the World Worksby Boyce Rensberger (2000)

Genuine Works of Hippocratesby Francis Adams (1972)

Lacks' Immortality

2000-10-06T08:13:00.000-07:00

A cell culture is the growth of cells "in vitro", meaning "in glass apparatus".
Perhaps the most widely known cell culture contains what are called HeLa cells, named after Henrietta Lacks, a Baltimore women who died in of cervical cancer in 1951. Cells from her tumour are growing today in hundred of laboratories all over the world. In fact, the total weight of HeLa cells alive today far exceeds the weight of Henrietta herself when she was alive. HeLa cells were even sent into orbit aboard the Discover 17 satellite. And of course, each cell contains the genetic blueprint (DNA) for constructing Mrs. Lacks. Immortality indeed.

Sources
A Conspiracy of Cells: One Woman's Immortal Legacy and the Medical Scandal it Caused by Michael Gold (1986)

Life Itself: Exploring the Realm of the Living Cell by Boyce Rensberger (1998)

Select Musical Recordings 1994-2008

1994-05-16T21:19:00.000-07:00

Woodrow
My original award winning group (circa 1997-2001). Winners of 1996's Molson Canadian MusicFest and recipients of multiple Factor grants.

Flash Flood

Big Blue Sea

Okay

Cheat The Season

Malice In Wonderland
My first real original group (circa 1994-2000). Recipients of multiple Factor grants and featured on MuchMusic with a national video and an interview with the band.

No Reason

Rather Wait

Edge of My World

Atrocities

Electronica Shorts
Armed with a Kaossilator and a 4-track, these tunes are essentially pimped-up, melodic loops.

ECUBE

PAC MAN

HorseTalk

BB

Adam and Tanya
Songs written by Adam and Tanya Coovadia.

Stay With Me

Hands Down

Adam Solo - A Collection of Covers

Three Dudes

See: http://www.myspace.com/wethreedudes